SAHARA ART RUPESTRE

Maximilien Bruggmann was a Swiss photographer who travelled extensively in Africa from 1957 onwards, particularly to the Sahara and the Sahel, but also to North and South America and Asia. Together with Henri-J. Hugot, he led several archaeological expeditions in the Sahara, the Sahel and Mauritania. However, he was also particularly interested in the prehistoric art of the region, especially the rock paintings and engravings. These works of art are important historical testimonies that shed light on the social structures and everyday life of people at a time when the Sahara was still green and populated. As the photographic author of more than sixty books, Maximilien Bruggmann has one of the richest and most comprehensive iconographic collections of Saharan rock art.

Henri-Jean Hugot (1916-20 - 14) was an outstanding Sahara specialist. After studying ethnology and palaeontology, he headed the department of Saharan prehistory at the Bardo Museum in Algiers for two years. From 1963 to 1969, he taught African prehistory at the Institut d'Afrique Noire in Dakar. In 1970 - , he was appointed vice-director of the Muséum d'Histoire naturelle in Paris. Throughout his life, Henri-Jean Hugot led numerous expeditions to the Maghreb and the Sahel and devoted his research to prehistoric civilisation. He published more than a hundred works, most of them with a scientific background, and thus made an important contribution to our understanding of this fascinating region. In this book, Henri-Jean Hugot presents four articles on the topics: - The Sahara, a region that went from fertile land to desert - The content and meaning of rock art - History of a misconception, sex and the desert - When the elephants slept under the trees of the Sahara

(5) - Fadnoun (Tassili-n'Ajjer) – A very naturalistic elephant walking. It gives the certainty of a direct observation by the artist. Length of the tail to the tip of the trunk: 0 - .34 m.

1 - Séfar (Tassili-n'Ajjer) – Period of the "round heads". "The great god" is part of a fresco that quickly became famous. Figures and animals appear to move within a magical scene. This is confirmed by the location where they are found. From elbow to elbow: 0.90 m.

2 - Oued Djérat (Tassili-n'Ajjer) – Spirals with the same direction of winding. This type of engraving is common and generally seen as a symbol of fertility. Radius of the large spiral: 0.36 m. Radius of the small sphere: 0.085 m.

2 - Oued Djérat (Tassili-n'Ajjer) – (original photo) Spirals with the same direction of winding. This type of engraving is common and generally seen as a symbol of fertility. Radius of the large spiral: 0.36 m. Radius of the small sphere: 0.085 m.

3 - Tin-Tazarift (Tassili-n'Ajjer) – Slender archer from the bovine period. As is often the case, the arrows are carried in a "bundle," and one arrow has just been released by the archer.

3 - Tin-Tazarift (Tassili-n'Ajjer) – (original photo) Slender archer from the bovine period. As is often the case, the arrows are carried in a "bundle," and one arrow has just been released by the archer.

4 - Tan-Zoumaïtak (Tassili-n'Ajjer) – Period of the "round heads". The magnificent ram with cuffs and the two elegant, richly adorned women stand out against the background of mysterious animals painted in white. In the middle, to the left, an animal is being ridden by a figure. The monstrous beast at the bottom left measures 0.52 m.

6 - Jabbaren (Tassili-n'Ajjer) – Life-size hands in negative, obtained by projecting white pigment onto hands pressed against the rock. This symbol is universal and remains emotionally powerful.

7 - Oued Djérat (Tassili-n'Ajjer) – Triple spiral. In contrast to the spiral in photo 2, the elegance of this engraving stands out. The two figures at the bottom result from two lines that start at their center and move in opposite directions. The work was done on a horizontal slab.

Maximilien Bruggmann filming and photographing the spirals during his one-year stay with the Tuareg in the Tassili Mountains - 1962

Contents of the book.

Presentation of photos of rock art by region in the Sahara.

Map of the locations where the rock paintings and rock engravings were found.

A Word from the Photographer

In 1957, I discovered the Sahara for the first time while on my way to Kilimanjaro. On the Hoggar trail, I found my first petroglyph, a dappled camel, thus relatively recent. A click happened in my mind, and I already wanted to learn more about this distant past, which I consider the birth of Art. In 1961-1962, I returned to Tassili n'Ajjer to film "Blue Shadows of Tassili" for "Connaissances du Monde." During this year-long stay, lived with my six camels, I was able to admire and photograph this great open-air prehistoric museum that Tassili n'Ajjer has become. After this long stay among the Tuareg and their environment, eighteen more trips to the Sahara followed, the last in 1993, leading to the completion of this work. All the photos were taken with Hasselblad and Nikon (Kodak film), rarely with flash, which is now prohibited, and no rock painting was moistened. Thanks to canvas reflectors, which bounced sunlight into the shaded shelters, it was possible to capture the true colors of the day. As the photographer of this work, I would like to express my deepest gratitude to the author of the highly scholarly text, my friend Henri J. Hugot, a true prehistorian and connoisseur of the Sahara, as well as to Professor Théodore Monod, who wrote the preface with all his expertise. I sincerely thank all the friends who shared the trail with me at one time or another during the photo shoots. They will recognize themselves, as it is difficult to mention everyone. A special thanks to Jean-Claude Bourgeon, a Saharan guide today, who assisted me during many trips, including the Blaka mission, to Armande Reymond, known as "La Gazelle," who took many notes and measured the rock art, and to Philippe Roulet, our doctor during several missions. Other faces come to mind: Jean Garzoni, Pascal Pol, Ernest and Mado Grize, Günther Proksch ... Finally, Xavier Veuthey and Patrick Schauenberg, who executed the various maps based on my drawings. My gratitude also goes to Sylvio Acatos, without whom this book would not have come to fruition. Maximilien Bruggmann

Chapter 1: AÏR - Niger

The Aïr Mountains in Niger are characterised by a varied landscape. There are high mountains, deep gorges, extensive plateaus and rock formations. Some plant species that are relatively rare in the Sahara grow at higher altitudes. There are also rocks and cavities that harbour historical rock paintings and engravings, which are evidence of earlier human life and activities in the region. - In the picture: ‘The dead tree’, which is located in front of the large Arakao dunes on the eastern slope of the Aïr Mountains.

The Aïr Mountains are famous for their rock art, which dates back to 6000 BC to 1000 AD. It is mainly found on the eastern slope of the mountain range in the transition zone to the Ténéré desert. These are mainly rock engravings made with pointed stone and possibly with metal after 1200 BC. According to the oldest depictions, this was a pastoral area, as evidenced by numerous depictions of cattle and large mammals (in particular, a five-metre-high engraving of a giraffe discovered in Dabous in 1999 is world-famous). In the 3rd millennium BC, however, desertification became noticeable and the Tuareg migrated into this region from the north. The depictions now point to war scenes showing chariots, horses and battle scenes.

8 - Tassirés. Oued Tilemsane (Aïr). – Horse epoch. Animals with very schematic lines. The bovine is well rendered, however. There are likely more recent inscriptions in Tifinar. The ox is 0.90 m long.

9 - Tassirés. Oued Tilemsane (Aïr). – Horse epoch. Numerous horses, graffiti, Tifinars, and a large figure, possibly a woman. As is often the case, the eyes are not carved but are formed by using natural cavities. The height of the woman is 1.60 m. Also noteworthy is the contrast between the quality of the engraving of the horses and the notable clumsiness of the ostriches.

10 - Tassirés. Oued Tilemsane (Aïr). – Horse epoch. The central figure has a "ant-head" typical of this period when warriors dominated more than hunters. Note the costume and the appendages on the head, which may not be feathers. The height of the figure from the top of the antennae to the feet: 1.50 m.

11 - Tassirés. Oued Tilemsane (Aïr). – Horse epoch. This large figure also wears a robe, whose engraving highlights a sort of crenellation. Noteworthy are the two small hemispherical protrusions at the bottom, on the right and left. From feet to head: 1.60 m.

12 - Heraoui (Aïr). – Horse epoch. The riders on three well-identifiable horses are depicted as "body-men." The horse on the left measures 0.35 m from the croup to the muzzle.

13 - Heraoui (Aïr). – Horse epoch. Here, the riders appear as if standing on their horses, which is a mistake by the engraver. Additionally, the two men are pushing wild antelopes in front of them, such as oryx, addax, etc. Width of the rock support: 1.60 m.

14 - Oued Tagalalat (Aïr). – Horse epoch. Emaciated cow (?). Note the vertical line in the center of the abdomen, as well as the jugular appendage and the precise depiction of the animal. From the tip of the horn to the end of the legs: 0.30 m.

14 - Oued Tagalalat (Aïr). – (original photo) Horse epoch. Emaciated cow (?). Note the vertical line in the center of the abdomen, as well as the jugular appendage and the precise depiction of the animal. From the tip of the horn to the end of the legs: 0.30 m.

15 - Oued Tagalalat (Aïr). - Despite the weakness of the engraving style, this is indeed a document from the Horse Period. The warriors, shaped like a diabolo, are equipped with spears and shields. On the right, note the exceptional beast. A hoofed animal resembling a lion (?). The head, achieved by peripheral punching, shows the two eyes in a "flat" position (diocular technique). Length of the lion: 0.30 m.

16 - Agalala (Aïr). - Various periods, particularly Camel Period. This type of document is typical of the edges of paths that have been used for a long time. Height of the rock: 2 m.

17 - Agalala (Aïr). - Horse Period. Male cattle. Note the jugular appendages and the extended punching meant to represent the coat's colors. Height of the central figure, from hoof level to the middle of the back: 0.45 m.

18 - Oued Tafidet (Aïr). - A typical view of this region (landscape veiled by suspended sand in the air).

19 - Oued Tafidet (Aïr). - Giraffes from the so-called Pastoral Period. Compare with other schematic giraffes from the Horse Period found at Tagueït bas. Height of the left giraffe: 1 m.

20 - Tagueït bas (Aïr). - Wall overloaded with graffiti. While the figures from the Horse Period are identifiable, the rest makes little sense. Note an axe at the top, in the center.

21 - Tagueït bas (Aïr). - Pastoral Period? It is difficult to associate these giraffes with those from Oued Tafidet: their attribution to one style or another is difficult.

22 - Tagueït bas (Aïr). - Pastoral Period. An elephant, with noticeable feet and a vertical line across the middle of its belly. Another antelopine. A schematic ostrich made with a single line. Height of the elephant: 0.40 m.

23 - Tagueït bas (Aïr). - Horse Period. A figure without a weapon, carrying an indeterminate round object on the left arm. Decoration on the central part of the body. From the top of the feathers to the base of the feet: 1.10 m.

24 - Tagueït bas (Aïr). - End of the Pastoral Period. Five highly stylized giraffes. From the head to the base of the legs of the largest giraffe: 0.95 m.

25 - Tagueït bas (Aïr). - Pastoral period. In the Sahel, near domesticated cattle, giraffes are not rare. Their abundance should therefore not be surprising. Remember the crumbly nature of the rocks in the Air mountains. Height of the large giraffe: 0.65 m.

26 - Tagueït bas (Aïr). - The stippling aims to render the coat of an antelopine to the edge of schematism. From the horns to the legs: 0.40 m.

27 - Tagueït bas (Aïr). - Note the difference in style between the first three giraffes on the right and the two preceding them, and finally the one on the extreme left. The supporting block is 2.20 m wide. The rock is located at the top of a rockslide.

28 - Tagueït bas (Aïr). - Stippled giraffe and ostriches on a rockslide. Height of the rock: 0.50 m.

29 - Tagueït bas (Aïr). - Very schematic stippled engravings. The central figure does not clearly evoke equids. To its right, a figure with a bi-triangular garment and a head in an inverted U-shape. The central figure is 0.70 m tall.

30 - Tagueït bas (Aïr). - Figures with "ant head" (equids) set against a background of animals (domesticated?). Note the spears and round shields. The animals measure between 0.30 and 0.40 m in height.

31 - Tagueït moyen (Aïr). - Figures from the horse era. One might wonder what the multiple forms of the heads, oversized in relation to the body, correspond to. Then, note the individuals with a bi-triangular coat, those with a straight coat, and those whose legs are visible up to the thighs. The tallest measures 0.50 m.

32 - Tagueït moyen (Aïr). - Four very schematic and very recent ostriches. The tallest is 0.37 m high.

33 - Tagueït moyen (Aïr). - Current or sub-current giraffe. Note the right-angled tail, the straight spine, and the gender still emphasized. Height: 0.32 m.

34 - Tagueït moyen (Aïr). - Two male elephants in the same very decadent style as the previous giraffes and ostriches. They appear to be from the pre-Islamic period but should be dated to the end of the pastoral period.

35 - Tagueït haut (Aïr). - Giraffes, bovids, rhinoceroses, and ostriches intertwine and overlap in this fresco, where wild species seem to dominate.

36 - Tagueït medium (Aïr). – Note the difference in patina between the two giraffes on the left, which are themselves overlain by a newer giraffe with an appendage around the neck. The hind legs are too long, like those of the two giraffes on the right. Note the isolated rhinoceros at the top, as well as the chariot, which highlights the historical character of the work engraved in "flat". The chariot's platform is not visible; finally, a lion (?) catches the attention. Chariot length: 0.52 m.

37 - Tagueït high (Aïr). – Enlargement of the belly pattern of the central giraffe in the next image. Note the combined use of punctuating and line drawing. Width of the detail: 0.35 m.

38 - Tagueït high (Aïr). – This giraffe fresco, remarkable for the work of punctuating and line engraving it required, does not date from the same period as the two figures, one of which is an archer leading the herd, and which seem much later. The main animals measure between 0.60 m and 0.80 m. The rock itself is 2.40 m long.

Maximilien Bruggmann photographing the giraffe fresco in Tagueït.

39 - Tagueït high (Aïr). – Archer of the horse period and a young horse. Clumsy punctuating. The bow measures 0.50 m in length.

40 - Tagueït high (Aïr). – Punctuated elephant, very decadent. From the top of the skull to the hind leg: 0.27 m.

41 - Tagueït high (Aïr). – Small, very natural horse with an appendage hanging at the neck. The inside is fully punctuated. Although it is probably a mere coincidence, the horse is in the posture of an animal rising up. Height: 0.27 m.

42 - Tagueït high (Aïr). – Fresco depicting giraffes, an elephant, ostriches, and an ox. The important site of Tagueït does not offer any truly ancient engravings. The wildlife is still significant, but the arrival of foreign ethnic groups often makes it difficult to attribute them to a specific culture.

43 - Tanakom (Aïr). – Typical labyrinth showing the advanced peeling state of the rock in Aïr. The overhanging rock to the right, covering the slanted line in the foreground, is covered with beautiful engravings.

44 - Tanakom (Aïr). – Herd of bovines led by a shepherd. On the side, one animal is ridden, another followed by a shepherd. Work from the late pastoral period. The slab is 2.15 m long.

45 - Tanakom (Aïr). - From the same period: giraffes, ostrich, shepherd touching a bovine. The engravers were interested in all smooth surfaces.

46 - Tanakom (Aïr). - Still giraffes. Their number can be explained either by the engravers' interest or by their diversity. These are very well observed. Slab height: 0.45 m.

47 - Tanakom (Aïr). - Pastoral period. Various quadrupeds. The interest lies in the two figures in the center. The one on the left would fit well in a modern art museum and does not allow for any satisfactory explanation. The one on the right may be holding a bow.

48 - Tanakom (Aïr). - Decadent giraffes. The largest measures 0.85 m in height.

49 - Tanakom (Aïr). - Character with an "ant head" in a praying position. Small intentional character between the two larger ones. Equid period. Religious scene. The appendage between the legs may be the tail of the animal preserved on a leather tunic.

50 - Tanakom (Aïr). - Giraffes, graffiti. Width of the decorated surface: 1.20 m.

51 - Tanakom (Aïr). - Spotted elephant, strange schematic animals. Note the three stylized figures. Height of the elephant: 0.45 m.

52 - Anakom (Aïr). - Equid period. Very interesting human figures belonging to the same ensemble. The volume is exaggerated for the two large figures, holding a spear and the reins of a horse in the left hand, while holding an undefined object in the right hand. At neck height, perhaps ear pendants. The small figures seem to wear puffed trousers. The hair is well visible on the side, with the faces emphasized. The head is topped with a curious ornament. The costume is highly elaborate. A camel adds a counterpoint to the age of the ensemble. There are also Tifinars, a giraffe, ostriches. The large figure on the left is 1.60 m tall. The small figure on the right: 0.78 m.

53 - Anakom (Aïr). - Equid period. Very interesting human figures belonging to the same ensemble. The volume is exaggerated for the two large figures, holding a spear and the reins of a horse in the left hand, while holding an undefined object in the right hand. At neck height, perhaps ear pendants. The small figures seem to wear puffed trousers. The hair is well visible on the side, with the faces emphasized. The head is topped with a curious ornament. The costume is highly elaborate. A camel adds a counterpoint to the age of the ensemble. There are also Tifinars, a giraffe, ostriches. The large figure on the left is 1.60 m tall. The small figure on the right: 0.78 m.

An overview of the two previous photos.

54 - Large fresco from Anakom (Aïr). - A well-observed rider, oryx, antelopes, ostriches, Tifinars show the continuity of mankind since the arrival of the "equids". The animal with a diamond-shaped coat is 0.47 m long. The large antelope on the right is 0.52 m long.

55 - Anakom (Aïr). - The galloping oryx stand out from many graffiti. The small horse, near a man armed with a spear and shield, is also engraved by someone familiar with the equid world. At the bottom right, a man with a U-shaped head. Although of the same type as the previous one, the character on the left (0.75 m tall) has a "sun-shaped" head.

56 - Anakom (Aïr). - Figures whose main interest is to present a dress for women, a trouser suit (?) for men, all richly decorated. These equid-like figures are approximately 0.75 meters tall.

57 - Anakom (Aïr). - Figures whose main interest is to present a dress for women, a trouser suit (?) for men, all richly decorated. These equid-like figures are approximately 0.75 meters tall.

58 - Anakom (Aïr). - Figures whose main interest is to present a dress for women, a trouser suit (?) for men, all richly decorated. These equid-like figures are approximately 0.75 meters tall.

59 - Anakom (Aïr). - Figures whose main interest is to present a dress for women, a trouser suit (?) for men, all richly decorated. These equid-like figures are approximately 0.75 meters tall.

60 - Arakao (Aïr). - Interesting archer appearing to wear some kind of saroual. The fingers of the hand are clearly highlighted.

61 - Arakao (Aïr). - Equid period: gazelles, monkey (?) To the left of the second row of gazelles, horse, ostrich, giraffes, figures from the equid period. The support block measures 2.40 meters in height.

62 - Arakao (Aïr). - A large giraffe (from the tip of the tail to the snout: 0.61 m). The punctuated pattern, which usually indicates the color of the garment, is replaced by lines.

63 - Arakao (Aïr). - A cow (note the udders) in the same style. From the base of the tail to the tips of the horns: 0.94 meters in length.

64 - Arakao (Aïr). - Many Tifinar characters are added to the figures of the equid period. The exact date of Tifinar writing is unknown, but its structure appears to be very ancient. Height of the two figures: 1 meter.

65 - Tezirzek (Aïr). - Horse Period. Two figures (the one on the left is 0.70 m tall) hold together, at the end of a rope, an indistinguishable being that seems to resemble a child!

66 - Tezirzek (Aïr). - The horse-like figures were so fond of representing themselves that one could create an inventory of their various portrayals, often, in fact, accompanied by one or more horses.

67 - Tezirzek (Aïr). - The horse-like figures were so fond of representing themselves that one could create an inventory of their various portrayals, often, in fact, accompanied by one or more horses.

68 - Surroundings of Iferouane (Aïr). - Two graceful antelopes (?) adorn a smooth rock surface, which is very rare. The style recalls Black Africa. Height of the animals: 0.60 m.

68 - Surroundings of Iferouane (Aïr). - (original photo) Two graceful antelopes (?) adorn a smooth rock surface, which is very rare. The style recalls Black Africa. Height of the animals: 0.60 m.

69 - Temet (Aïr). - Very decadent engravings depicting two equid-like figures with strongly emphasized eyes. Bovids (?). From the snout of the one on the right to the tail of the one following: 1.05 m.

70 - Dabous (Western Aïr). - Animal fresco: giraffe, goats (?) etc. Note the deep lines of the engraving, despite the "equine" appearance of the giraffe, which measures 1.15 meters from the nostrils to the tail.

71 - Dabous (Western Aïr). - Antelope engraved in wide and deep lines. From the top of the horns to the front legs: 0.55 meters.

72 - Dabous (Western Aïr). - Antelope-like (?) from the head to the hind hooves: 0.80 m.

73 - Dabous (Western Aïr). - Rare and very beautiful giraffe head. The snout, horns, and ears are polished. The mane is highlighted. This giraffe is reproduced in its entirety in photo 74. Note the rope hanging from the snout...

74 - Dabous (Western Aïr). - Remarkable pair of giraffes with great anatomical precision that can be attributed to the beautiful naturalist era. The left giraffe, from the hind hoof to the head: 5.80 m, and the right one, also with a rope hanging from the nostrils, 3.02 m from the head to the tail's end.

Chapter 2: DJADO - Niger

Enneri Blaka is located in the flat Djado massif in the north-eastern part of the Republic of Niger. In 1956, the Meharists Lamothe and Moreau discovered various rock engravings on a large, remote rock in the Enneri Blaka and reported them. When the Berliet-Ténéré mission passed by in 1960, some members drew up an inventory of this interesting site. They gave the unusual-looking rock the name ‘Le sous-marin’ (The submarine) and called it Blaka Site 1. They discovered two other interesting sites nearby.

The Sahara, especially the Central Sahara, contains the world's largest and most diverse deposit of rock art. It has been largely explored. Only a few larger regions have been omitted from research to date, primarily due to logistical difficulties. The Djado Plateau in the north-east of Niger is one of these archaeological ‘blank spots’. This is where the Enneri Blaka, a dry wadi, is located. Maximilien Bruggmann reports: 'During the T4 mission of 1966/67, we visited the three stations discovered by the Berliet mission in the Enneri Blaka to take films and photographs. About 1700 metres north of the ‘submarine’ we found a new station, which we called Site 4. It was a very large, hammered elephant. We could not continue our search in this area as we had too little petrol and too little time to get to the Tibesti Mountains in the north of Chad. An idea was born: We should return and search the Enneri Blaka thoroughly, where we would most likely discover more new sites. In 1968/69, during the Blaka mission, another 7 sites were found and documented (see plan). Our last mission to explore Enneri Blaka took place in 1975 - . Three new stations were found. Up to this point, a total of 14 sites had been documented.

As part of the archaeological exploration of the Sahara, trip 18 in 1975 - led to the Ténéré and the Enneri Blaka. The purpose was to search for rock paintings and engravings. The picture shows the arrival of the expedition with the 4 Landrovers at the ‘submarine’ in the Enneri Blaka.

75 - Guelta Domo. Djado Region. - Painted antelope, with a red chest and the rest of the body in white. The lower part of an individual appears at the top of the painting. Its contours were made in white. Rock paintings in the Sahara, except for schematic figures always in red, seem to occupy a more limited chronological position compared to engravings. From the hind paw to the horn: 0.315 m.

76 - Guelta Domo. Djado Region. - Engravings called camelines with Tifinagh, camels ridden or unmounted.

77 - Djado Region. - Two figures, probably Garamantes in leather clothing. The figure on the left holds a spear in the right hand and a shield (?) in the left hand. Height of the figures: 0.37 m.

78 - Djado Region. - Engraved elephant 3.50 m above the ground. Here, the classic style is evident, although there is asymmetry in the movement of the legs. From the tip of the front legs to the back leg: 2.22 m.

78 - Djado Region. - (original photo) Engraved elephant 3.50 m above the ground. Here, the classic style is evident, although there is asymmetry in the movement of the legs. From the tip of the front legs to the back leg: 2.22 m.

79 - Djado Region, near the Sara Pass. - Remarkable fresco, reflecting the varied colors of the rocks. We are here in the great pastoral or bovine era, which often blends animals and humans. The panel shown here measures 0.85 m.

80 - Drigana. Djado Region. - Rhinoceros overlapping an elephant. Old engraving. From the tail tip to the horn tip: 1.56 m.

80 - Drigana. Djado Region. - (original photo) Rhinoceros overlapping an elephant. Old engraving. From the tail tip to the horn tip: 1.56 m.

81 - Drigana. Djado Region. - On a rock bordering a reg, once a prime area for elephant movement, this magnificent Neolithic fresco of 4 naturalistic elephants. The rock measures 4.25 m in width. In the same position, facing the Ténéré plateau, and 300 m from the first ones, three other elephants in the same style. Width of the supporting rock: 4.10 m. (82)

82 - Drigana. Djado Region. - On a rock bordering a reg, once a prime area for elephant movement, this magnificent Neolithic fresco of 4 naturalistic elephants. The rock measures 4.25 m in width (81). In the same position, facing the Ténéré plateau, and 300 m from the first ones, three other elephants in the same style. Width of the supporting rock: 4.10 m.

83 - Enneri Domo, Arkana site. - Bitriangular characters. These representations differ from those referred to as "ant-head" (84). The costume is tight at the waist, and its decorations are no longer visible. The head is reduced to a circle with a dotted interior, and its ornaments are limited to a few lines. Photo 83 - : The distance between the hands is 1.22 meters. Photo 84: The character on the left measures 0.54 meters in height, from the head ornaments to the feet.

84 - Enneri Domo, Arkana site. - Bitriangular characters. These representations differ from those referred to as "ant-head" (84 - ). The costume is tight at the waist, and its decorations are no longer visible. The head is reduced to a circle with a dotted interior, and its ornaments are limited to a few lines. Photo 83: The distance between the hands is 1.22 meters. Photo 84 - : The character on the left measures 0.54 meters in height, from the head ornaments to the feet.

85 - Enneri Domo, Arkana site. - Chariot period. Ox-drawn cart. The wheels have six spokes and are engraved in a "flattened" style. The "floor" plays an important role, and the yokes are very wide apart. Note the primitive stylization of the animals and the character. The cart from one outer edge of the wheel to the other: 0.58 meters.

86 - Enneri Domo, Arkana site. - Chariot period. Ostrich, oxen, giraffe; tifinars, sheep or goats. On the cart, whose wheels with four spokes are depicted in a "flattened" manner, the central yoke ends in a small crossbar. The floor is reduced to a flat triangle. The rock has a height of 1.77 meters.

87 - View of Enneri Blaka. - As we reached the edge of the cliffs with a view of Enneri, we had the impression that a command post of a submarine was emerging from the sand. The name has remained... and the illusion is striking (see the photo by Maximilien Bruggmann illustrating the beginning of the Djado chapter). The site itself was discovered in 1956 by the Méharist officers Lamothe and Moreau. In 1959, the Berliet-Ténéré mission added sites 2 and 3. The Bruggmann mission completed the inventory in 1967 with the discovery of site 4. Then, at the end of 1968, during the research of the Blaka mission, also led by Maximilien Bruggmann, other very interesting sites were found, which were assigned the numbers 5 to 11. On the west face of the "submarine," there is a remarkable giraffe engraving from the old layer (Neolithic or Bubaline), captured in motion. Height of this giraffe: 0.70 meters. Site 1.

At the foot of the ‘Sous-Marin’ of the Berliet Mission, the ‘Mission Blaka’ set up its base camp under a rock shelter, protected by a dune. Between the end of November and mid-December 1968, the expedition discovered 7 new stations with rock art.

88 - Enneri Blaka. Site 1. - Oryx engraved in line. Bubal period. From the nostrils to the base of the tail: 0.23 m.

89 - Enneri Blaka. Site 1. - Elephant engraved in line. Bubal period. From the trunk to the base of the tail: 0.53 m.

90 - Enneri Blaka. Site 1. - Two rhinoceroses engraved in line with a V-shaped cross-section. From the horn on the right to the tail on the left: 0.84 m.

91 - Enneri Blaka. Site 1. - Deer. Ancient painting in the rock shelter "Sous-marin". In addition to the beauty of the work, it is worth noting the presence of this clearly southern herbivore in a place where it no longer occurs. Length: 0.25 m.

92 - Enneri Blaka. Site 1. - Mural depicting a procession of figures painted in red ochre, ranging from 0.10 to 0.20 m in height. The heads, resembling an inverted U or a canine snout, recall those already seen in the Air. One cannot help but think of a ritual dance.

93 - Enneri Blaka. Site 1. - Very beautiful cow from the bovine period. Bicolored, like the Deer-Robert from photo 91. The udders are clearly outlined. Although this piece is on the right, it is on the same line as the previous frieze, making it difficult to associate them in the same style. From the snout to the base of the tail: 0.295 m.

94 - Enneri Blaka. Site 1. - Bubal period. Leaping Dorcas gazelles. Beautiful, deeply engraved drawing on a horizontal slab, to the north of the "Sous-marin". The animal in the center of the photo measures 0.26 m in length.

95 - Enneri Blaka. Site 1. - Rhinoceros from the so-called Bubal period. The document is overlaid with a more recent puncture. From the snout to the end of the tail: 0.36 m.

96 - Enneri Blaka. Site 2. - Drawing of a very decadent ox, based on a photograph by Maximilien Bruggmann. From the tail to the horn tip: 0.53 m.

97 - Enneri Blaka. Site 2. - (original photo) Rhinoceros from the ancient period, engraved with shallow lines. From the tip of the horn to the back of the hind foot: 0.40 m.

98 - Enneri Blaka. Site 2. - Naturalistic elephant, engraved with shallow lines, resembling the style of the previous rhinoceros in the photograph (same artist?). From the end of the trunk to the base of the tail: 0.44 m.

99 - Enneri Blaka. Site 3. - Ox with a "solar disc" between the horns. Figures, giraffes, graffiti... The disc is actually an oval shape, which may refer to a secular ornament. The stippled engravings are late and difficult to classify.

100 - Enneri Blaka. Site 3. - Giraffe from the older layer, engraved with fine lines. From the top of the head to the bottom of the legs: 0.425 m. The firm direction of the lines does not correct the imperfections of the supporting rock.

101 - Enneri Blaka. Site 3. - Elephant engraved on a defective rock. Period of the so-called "Bubale" era. From the base of the hind leg to the end of the tusks: 0.60 m.

102 - Enneri Blaka. Site 3. - Two schematic giraffes with scalariform legs. Compared to the giraffe in photo 101, these engravings appear very decadent. From the tip of the snout (right giraffe) to the base of the tail: 0.315 m.

103 - Enneri Blaka. Site 3. - Period of the "Bubale". A very beautiful giraffe created with lines and internal polishing of the legs. The legs are precise, the curve, and the head well observed. Behind the animal, another smaller giraffe could indicate that the larger one is a nursing female. However, the styles appear different. The engraving of the large giraffe overlaps a small stippled bovine, therefore earlier. From the giraffe’s hooves to the top of its horns: 2.45 m.

104 - Enneri Blaka. Site 4. - Giraffes in a rigid, decadent style. The largest measures 1.05 m in height.

105 - Enneri Blaka. Site 4. - Large naturalistic elephant. Period of the "Bubale". The over-engraving of the three giraffes is much later. Their style is also schematic. From the tips of the elephant's tusks to the end of the tail: 1.80 m long.

Maximilien Bruggmann and Sylvio Acatos taking the inventory of the large elephant at Site 4 of Enneri Blaka.

106 - Enneri Blaka. Site 5. - Typical view of a Neolithic habitat overlooking the valley and its river. This is a rock shelter with dormant grinding stones and traces of sharpening. Ceramic shards are scattered around the shelter. The shelter is 19 m wide, 7 m deep, and the ceiling is 3 m high.

107 - Enneri Blaka. Site 5. - Period of the "Bubale". Small ungulate engraved with deep lines. Note the ends of the legs. This disproportion is found in many regions, especially the Rio de Oro. From the tips of the horns to the hooves: 0.225 m.

108 - Enneri Blaka. Site 5. - Period of the "Bubale". Two very beautiful giraffes, with well-engraved lines emphasizing their elegance. This depiction and the previous one (photo 107) are flat on the floor of the Neolithic shelter. At the top left, sandal prints can be seen, like those found by the thousands across the Sahara, especially in Tiratimine (Hoggar). These are a love wish specific to the Tuareg people. From the giraffe's hooves to the base of its horns: 0.95 m.

109 - Enneri Blaka. Site 5. - Still on the same stone slab of the rock shelter, from the "bubale" period, a schematic rhinoceros that fits well with the local style and the difficulty of properly capturing the anatomy of this animal. The legs also end in a "tapered" shape, which had already struck G.B.M. Flamand in 1921. From the tip of the horn to the back leg: 0.54 m.

110 - Enneri Blaka. Site 7. - Recent pastoral period. On a nearly vertical slab, an extraordinary grouping of cattle led Maximilien Bruggmann, the discoverer of the site, and his team to name it the "Ark of Noah." A mix of bovids, giraffes, hunters, and ungulates can be identified. The estimated number of subjects is 150! Width of the depicted panel: 1.75 m.

111 - Enneri Blaka. Site 7, known as the "Ark of Noah." - Detail of the fresco above: male bovid obtained by pecking, like most of the representations. The tail ends in a "broom." It is preceded by an animal with lyre-shaped horns (bovid?). From the tail to the tips of the horns: 0.91 m in length.

112 - Enneri Blaka. Site 7. - Another detail from the same site where 30 hunters have been identified. The "standing shooter" position of the archers is notable. From the foot of the lower archer to the tip of the upper archer's bow: 0.225 m.

113 - Enneri Blaka. Site 8. - "Bubale" period. The engraving is difficult to interpret due to the arrangement of the hind legs. From the snout to the rump: 0.43 m.

114 - Enneri Blaka. Site 9. - Red painting. Horse under the shelter known as the "Red Horse Shelter." From the rear hoof to the nostrils: 0.40 m.

115 - Enneri Blaka. Site 10. - Paintings from the "round heads" period (?). At the top, two cows with calves, in white. Below, three unidentifiable quadrupeds, one in red ochre, the other in white. The depicted panel is 0.75 m wide.

116 - Enneri Blaka. Site 10. - Engravings by pecking. End of the pastoral period. Giraffes, bovids, ungulates. The depicted panel is 2.20 m wide.

117 - Enneri Blaka. Site 10. - The shelter, seen from the inside, measures 9.60 meters in width. At the far end, behind the mountains, is the "Submarine of Blaka." On the ceiling, a red/pink elephant can be observed; additionally, one can spot bovids, a mounted animal... Sites 7 and 9 are located on the opposite cliffs.

118 - Enneri Blaka. Site 10. - Near the site, a small hunter created by pecking. Late period. The bow is held in the right hand. On the left elbow, there may be a small shield. See the equid-era figure from Aïr, photograph 23, which carries the same object.

118 - Enneri Blaka. Site 10. - (original photo) Near the site, a small hunter created by pecking. Late period. The bow is held in the right hand. On the left elbow, there may be a small shield. See the equid-era figure from Aïr, photograph 23, which carries the same object.

119 - Enneri Blaka. Site 10. - Pastoral period (?). This fresco decorates the ceiling of the rock shelter at Site 10. It primarily depicts bovids and human figures. Two of them are mounted on an ox. The width of the depicted ceiling section is 2.05 meters.

120 - Enneri Blaka. Site 10. - Site 10, as seen from Site 7! One can better understand Neolithic socio-geography; the sites are located in cliffs between which vast plains and rivers extend.

121 - Enneri Blaka. Site 10. - Another view of the ceiling painted in the pastoral period. The presence of a large herd of bovids does not exclude wild animals such as the elephant, which appears here in a red color. The bovids are white. An ox is ridden by a figure, which seems (?) to guide it with a rope. The elephant measures 0.41 meters in length.

122 - Enneri Blaka. Site 10. - A mounted, white ox. The painting style is very homogeneous. Notice the feather on the rider's headdress. From the tip of the tail to the snout: 0.225 meters.

123 - Enneri Blaka. Site 11 (2.7 km south of the "Submarine"). - Fresco of giraffes engraved from the "bubale" period. The coats are depicted using different pecking techniques.

124 - Enneri Blaka. Site 11. - Triangular figure from the Garamantic period. Engraving by pecking. The subject has a graceful posture and measures 0.64 meters from the feet to the tip of the feather on its head.

124 - Enneri Blaka. Site 11. - (original photo) Triangular figure from the Garamantic period. Engraving by pecking. The subject has a graceful posture and measures 0.64 meters from the feet to the tip of the feather on its head.

125 - Enneri Blaka. Site 11. - Garamantic period. Two triangular figures with U-shaped heads. Fine engraving. The right arm of the right figure crosses the left arm of the left figure, which measures 0.225 meters in height.

126 - Enneri Blaka. Site 11. - On top of an engraved giraffe are two (?) unidentified quadrupeds. A man stands at the back and touches the tail of one of them.

127 - Rocky landscape at the confluence of Enneri Blaka (on the left) and Domo (on the right). This location is notably rich in rock engravings from all periods since the Neolithic.

128 - Confluent Blaka-Domo. Site 12. - Chariot Era. Chariot drawn by oxen, depicted in the naive technique of the "flat-format." Note the axle, the four-spoked wheels, and the very cramped platform. Width of the panel: 0.69 m.

129 - Confluent Blaka-Domo. Site 12. - Chariot Era. The driver wears the tunic tightly belted at the waist, characteristic of the Garamantes. Both wheels have 6 spokes, and the axle is poorly positioned. No platform is visible. From the outside of the right wheel to the outside of the left wheel: 0.38 m.

130 - Confluent Blaka-Domo. Site 12. - Garamantic Era (?). Object that is part of a series united by the same appearance. Loincloth (?)

131 - Confluent Blaka-Domo. Site 12. - Bubaline Era. Rhino engraved with fine and regular lines. It is preceded by a smaller rhino. At the top right, two hanging parts of “loincloths” (?). Large rhino, from the tip of the tail to the tip of the horn: 0.51 m.

132 - Confluent Blaka-Domo. Site 12. - Bubaline Era. Elephant engraved with fine lines. Between its legs is the rhino from photo 131. The fact that the rocks here are flat and provide horizontal surfaces attracted artists who did not hesitate to superimpose their works on those of their predecessors. At the height of the elephant's rump, a vulvar symbol (?). The panel portion measures 2.65 m in length.

133 - Confluent Blaka-Domo. Site 12. - Bubaline Era. Extraordinary bovine with oversized horns. Several central parts of loincloths. Vulvar sign, hooves... The surface depicted measures 1.17 m in height.

134 - Confluent Blaka-Domo. Site 12. - Bubaline Era. Beautiful cow engraved. The color differences in the coat are represented by lines separating the areas.

135 - Confluent Blaka-Domo. Site 12. - Bubaline Era. Engraved elephant. One of the two lines delimiting the back is an abandoned sketch; dotted vulvar sign. Width of the depicted panel: 0.66 m.

136 - Confluent Blaka-Domo. Site 12. - "Diabolo" man from the Garamantic period. He holds a spear in his right hand and a shield in his left hand. The lower part of his tunic is fringed, and his head is adorned with a well-identified feather.

137 - Confluent Blaka-Domo. Site 12. - Confronted rhinoceroses from the Bubaline period. From the tip of one tail to the other: 0.665 m.

Chapter 3: FEZZAN - Libya

The Fezzan is located in south-west Libya. Important archaeological sites can be found in Wadi Mathendous on the edge of Erg Murzurk and in the Tadrart Acacous Mountains. The picture shows a typical desert landscape from this region. The desert itself is characterised by mountains, rocks, sand and dunes. There are rock monuments comparable to those in the Arches National Park in the United States.

In the Tadrart Acacous Mountains there are caves in which you can find prehistoric engravings of elephants and water buffaloes from around 4000 BC. They are similar to those in the Algerian Tassili Mountains. The paintings document periods in which the region was considerably wetter and therefore offered a much more fertile landscape. In the Messak Plateau in south-west Libya, close to the borders with Algeria and Niger, some of the oldest rock paintings in the world can be found in the Wadi Mathendous. A veritable prehistoric menagerie is carved into the rock faces of the dried-up riverbed, including life-size elephants, giraffes and crocodiles. Some figures are depicted alone, others in intricate compositions fighting with other animals or humans. One of the more famous scenes from the Wadi Mathendous petroglyphs are the fighting cats.

138 - Oued Mathendous. In Habeter III. - As at Enneri Blaka, there are cliffs along the edges of river valleys. Very beautiful naturalistic engravings from the Bubaline period depicting giraffes and an elephant. The cracks in the rock are sometimes recent, which damages the depictions. Sometimes they are old, and the artist took this into account. Height of the giraffe, from the hooves to the tips of the horns: 2.25 m.

139 - Oued Mathendous. In Habeter III. - Enlarged detail of the previous engraving.

140 - Oued Mathendous. In Habeter III. - Giraffes engraved with continuous, regular, and deep lines. Bubaline period. A smaller, unfinished giraffe precedes them on the right. At the top left: recently etched bovine.

141 - Oued Mathendous. In Habeter III. - Bubaline period. The antelope in the center has a polished inner surface. A head appears below its neck. The antelope on the left, turned to the right, aligns with another animal turned to the left by the middle of its belly. This "monster" had already been seen by Frobenius. The ungulate in the center is 0.45 m in length.

142 - Oued Mathendous. In Habeter III. - Bubaline period. As Frobenius described and published it in 1937, this scene is discussed in the chapter "The History of a False Idea: Sex and the Desert." Note the very modern appearance of the costumes.

142 - Oued Mathendous. In Habeter III. - (original photo) Bubaline period. As Frobenius described and published it in 1937, this scene is discussed in the chapter "The History of a False Idea: Sex and the Desert." Note the very modern appearance of the costumes.

143 - Oued Mathendous. In Habeter III. - Bubaline period. The original engraving used as the model for L. Frobenius' drawing. Width of the panel shown in Maximilien Bruggmann's photo: 1.90 m.

144 - Oued Mathendous. In Habeter III. - Bubaline period. This depiction is discussed in the chapter "When Elephants Slept under Saharan Trees." From the legs to the ears: 0.95 m. (See: SAR-007B)

145 - Oued Mathendous. In Habeter III. - The famous scene of the monkeys, here all visible. Bubaline period. The three animals in the upper part have their inner body polished. The one depicted below is simply etched with lines. From the bottom of the lower animal's legs to the ears of the right animal: 1.90 m.

146 - Oued Mathendous. In Habeter III. - Period of the "bubale". Enlargement of the monkey: at the top right, a fine engraving appears within its body, but it is not from the same period. The ends of the legs resemble fingers more than claws, which is typical of the monkey.

147 - Oued Mathendous. In Habeter III. - Period of the "bubale". A large elephant faces an undefinable being, called "Meerkatze" by some. Below the elephant’s trunk, a hare or rabbit is clearly identifiable. The width of the depicted rock is 1.80 m.

148 - Oued Mathendous. In Habeter II. - An ensemble in which it would be tempting to see Garamantian graffiti accompanied by Tifinar inscriptions. The most interesting part is the figure on the right, despite it certainly being a more recent addition: on a massive rectangular "body" with scales facing upwards, there appears a hemispherical structure whose lower part is inserted into the body. The body itself rests on two medium-sized balls placed on two larger balls. Finally, the scaled structure seems to rest on a narrow band with larger scales. No explanation can be given for this engraving of undetermined age. Height of the figure: 2 m. Width of the body: 1.20 m.

149 - Oued Mathendous. In Habeter II. - Period of the "bubale". A large figure with an animal head and a tail is in a variation of the "Bès position". This ithyphallic figure is accompanied by a smaller replica placed to the right. The magical character of this scene is likely linked to fertility invocations, at a time when the Sahara was already threatened by drought. Note the beautiful ostrich at the center right. From the right foot to the tip of the ear: 1.08 m.

150 - Oued Mathendous. In Habeter III. - Period of the "bubale". A large giraffe, appearing massive but with precise anatomy. Engraving with deep and regular strokes. Below, a very schematic ostrich, perhaps later. Its presumed head is adjacent to a depiction of a trap. The circle above might be a representation of a jellyfish. The "trap" has a diameter of 0.63 m.

151 - Oued Mathendous. In Habeter III. - Two bovids with forward-facing horns. Above, another trap with a diameter of 0.56 m.

152 - Oued Mathendous. In Habeter III. - Period of the "bubale". The famous crocodile with a tail measuring 2.25 m in length! The depiction of the dermal plates was made with deep lines. Note the Tifinar inscriptions in the top right.

The Equipe Mission Blaka in front of the famous tail crocodile with a length of 2.25 m in the Wadi Mathendous: Philippe Roulet, Jean-Claude Bourgeon, Eva Bruggmann, Zoumri, Jean Garzoni, Maximilien Bruggmann - Libya - 1969

153 - Oued Mathendous. In Habeter III. - Period of the "bubale". A very beautiful engraving of a bovid with hanging horns. Note the depth of the lines and the cracks in the rock formed after the engraving. Length from the tip of the snout to the tip of the tail: 0.72 m.

154 - Detail of the previous one showing the quality of the engraved lines.

155 - Oued Mathendous. ln Habeter II. - Period of the "bubale." Beautiful naturalistic elephant engraved with deep strokes. Below, bovids. From the tail to the tip of the trunk: 1.10 m.

156 - Oued Mathendous. ln Habeter III. - Period of the "bubale." Two naturalistic giraffes. At the back of the left giraffe, a more recent human figure is seen as if mating with the giraffe.

157 - Oued Mathendous. ln Habeter II. - The central figure may have been altered (belt, oversized sex). It is followed by an ostrich. In front of it, various much younger engravings: ostrich, human, antelopes. To the left, birds. Width of the depicted panel: 2.10 m.

158 - Oued Mathendous. ln Habeter III. - Period of the "bubale." A bovine whose head, according to L. Frobenius, is topped by a symbol, which is uncertain. From the tip of the left horn to the hoof: 0.60 m.

159 - Oued Mathendous. ln Habeter III. - Two giraffes and two bovids engraved on a vertical rocky surface at the edge of the Oued. From the lowest legs of the large bovine to the head of the giraffes: 1.32 m.

160 - Oued Mathendous. ln Galgien. - Bovid. Bovid period. Notice the line between the horns, which are represented along the axis of the spine. From the tip of the tail to the muzzle: 0.73 m.

161 - Oued Mathendous. ln Habeter II. - Male bovid (?) with crescent-shaped horns. From the top of the horn to the hooves: 0.35 m.

162 - Oued Mathendous. ln Habeter II. - Decadent bovid with crescent-shaped horns. Tail in motion. The eyes were not engraved. From the top of the high horn to the hoof: 0.50 m.

163 - Oued Mathendous. ln Habeter III. - The "sad cow" (!), anatomically correct, with well-marked nostrils.

164 - Oued Mathendous. ln Habeter II. - Ox with lyre-shaped horns.

165 - Oued Mathendous. ln Habeter III. - Detail of photo 167 showing a small figure at the back of the giraffe holding its tail. Engraving from the same period. Another figure is masked by the giraffe's legs and carries a bow (?).

166 - Oued Mathendous. ln Galgien. - Two giraffes with traces of internal polishing. The second animal is accompanied by a calf.

167 - Oued Mathendous. ln Habeter III. - The giraffes, whose detail is shown in photo 165. Height of the giraffe from the neck to the hoof: 1 m.

168 - Oued Mathendous. In Habeter III. - Giraffe drinking. This representation is very rare. The front legs are spread apart.

169 - Oued Mathendous. In Habeter II. - Period of the "bubale." Large elephant. The nature of the rock has caused significant erosion, making the engraving at the head difficult to read. The decoration of the trunk and ears shows an interesting aesthetic pursuit. From the tip of the tail to the front leg: 1.20 m.

170 - Oued Mathendous. In Habeter III. - Small archer of indeterminate age. He wears "shorts," which is not entirely rare. A piece of leather or fabric (?) hangs between his legs, and the left shoulder's design, dominated by a crook, is difficult to explain. Height: 0.40 m.

170 - Oued Mathendous. In Habeter III. - (original photo) Small archer of indeterminate age. He wears "shorts," which is not entirely rare. A piece of leather or fabric (?) hangs between his legs, and the left shoulder's design, dominated by a crook, is difficult to explain. Height: 0.40 m.

171 - Oued Mathendous. In Habeter III. - Period of the "bubale." Elephant lifting (?) a man with its trunk. Block width: 1.40 m.

172 - Oued Mathendous. In Habeter III. - Small horse with a polished interior. From the tip of the ear to the hind hoof: 0.57 m.

173 - Oued Mathendous. In Habeter II. - Engraved bovine with geometric tendencies, featuring a jugular appendage. The horns resemble the shape of a lyre. From the snout to the base of the tail: 0.65 m.

174 - Oued Mathendous. In Habeter II. - Very beautiful ox, whose contours are engraved with a double line. As is often seen, the abdomen is marked by a vertical line. The lyre-shaped horns are above a clear eye. It is preceded by an antelope with very fine, long horns in the same style. From the left horn of the ox to the base of the tail: 0.65 m. Decadent graffiti between the horns of the ungulate.

175 - Oued Mathendous. In Habeter II. - Enigmatic figure with no rational explanation. Total height: 0.51 m.

176 - Oued Mathendous. In Habeter III. - Extraordinary engraving already seen by L. Frobenius. However, in his time, the hole between the legs did not exist. The photo by Maximilien Bruggmann corrects the representation given by L. Frobenius. From head to foot: 0.30 m in height.

177 - Oued Mathendous. In Habeter II. - Period of the "bubale." Mythical scene discussed in the chapter titled "History of a False Idea: Sex and the Desert." Panel width: 1.55 m. (See: SAR-007B)

178 - Oued Mathendous. In Habeter II. - Period of the "bubale." Beautiful elephant measuring 1.55 m from the legs to the skull. A misjudgment places both tusks to the left of the trunk. The elephants suggest a dense vegetation cover. Note the small figures.

179 - Oued Mathendous. In Habeter II. - Bubaline period. In fact, the designation *Bubalus antiquus* Duv. was initially abandoned in favor of *Omoïoceras antiquus* Duv., eventually leading to *Pelorouis antiquus* Duv. This bovine with monumental horns is contemporary with the Neolithic and disappears with it. This specimen has two tails. A large bird is engraved between the horns, which are spread 0.72 m apart at their tips.

180 - Oued Mathendous. In Habeter II. - Three giraffes, including one calf. The coat is depicted with scalariform patterns. The giraffe on the right measures 1.08 m from hoof to the tips of the horns.

181 - Oued Mathendous. In Habeter II. - A magnificent bull engraved with deep, regular lines. The tops of the horns are marked with two lines, themselves topped by a disc, in which some see an Egyptian influence, though this is not certain. From the tip of the snout to the end of the tail: 0.60 m in length.

182 - Oued Mathendous. In Habeter II. - Canids giving the observer the impression of being observed. They are likely fennecs or "sand foxes." Width of the depicted panel: 1.30 m.

183 - Oued Mathendous. In Habeter II. - Confronted goats. From the top of the horns on the right to the bottom of the legs: 0.60 m.

184 - Oued Mathendous. In Habeter II. - Fennec in motion. Life-size.

185 - Oued Mathendous. In Habeter III. - Lionesses with lyrical heads. Total width of the fractured block: 2.57 m.

186 - Oued Mathendous. In Habeter III. - Bubaline period. Ostriches in a circle. Six birds, identifiable by their heads, but only the legs of the first one are visible. The bird at the bottom left is from the same period. A more recent human figure is sketched at the bottom right.

187 - Oued Mathendous. In Habeter II. - Large elephant from the bubaline period. The engraving lines are sharp and well-followed. The weathering of the rock has cut off the legs above the feet, with the detached fragments lying at the base of the engraving. From the tip of the trunk to the end of the tail: 1.40 m in length.

188 - Oued Mathendous. In Galgien. - Bubaline engraving. Fragment of a mythical figure, whose visible arm shows a cuff with a turn-up. Height of the block: 0.70 m.

189 - Oued Mathendous. In Galgien. - Bubaline period. - A thero cephalic being wearing a medieval landsknecht's beret. Width of the depicted block: 0.82 m.

190 - Oued Mathendous. In Habeter III. - Detail of an engraved bovine head, showcasing remarkable artistic mastery. Width of the head at the level of the nostrils: 0.58 m.

191 - Oued Mathendous. In Habeter I. - Two-tone antelope, with one of the shades obtained through hammering. It is a male measuring 0.44 m from the top of the horns to the front hooves.

192 - Oued Mathendous. In Habeter II. - Ostrich engraved by puncturing. From the top of the head to the legs: 0.70 m in height.

193 - Oued Mathendous. In Habeter II. - Two hippopotamuses, with only the upper one being finished. Deep and consistent engraving. Positioned too high on the wall to be measured.

194 - Oued Mathendous. In Habeter III. - Bovine depicted in the grazing position. Below it, a teratological animal artificially composed of two hindquarters joined at the belly. From one tail to the other: 0.62 m in length. To the right of the tail's origin, a late addition of an animal head to correct (?) the lack of rationality of such a monster.

195 - Oued Mathendous. In Habeter II. - Lioness with marked claws, her tail bent upwards towards her back. It’s possible this tail actually belongs to a previous engraving. Note the 3 cup-shaped depressions behind the left front paw. From the top of the arch to the lioness’s hind paw: 0.75 m in height.

196 - Oued Mathendous. In Habeter II. - Giraffe drawn after L. Frobénius. Note the circle enclosing the origin of the neck. The drawing of the legs is awkward.

197 - Oued Mathendous. In Habeter II. - Detail of the head from the previous drawing.

198 - Oued Mathendous. In Habeter III. - Giraffe engraved with a deep line and a highly stylized head, reminiscent of the style of the painter Chirico. Height of the animal: 1.30 m.

199 - Oued Mathendous. In Habeter I. - Beautiful engraved ox with lyre-shaped horns. The coat is depicted by alternating reserved and polished areas. Below, another animal is sketched, partially overlapping the first. From the left tip of the horn to the end of the tail: 0.83 m in length.

200 - Oued Mathendous. In Habeter I. - Engraving of a bovid. The rendering of the scapula of the right front leg creates an impression of an added limb. The eyes are not shown. From the top of the horn to the end of the tail: 0.83 m.

201 - Oued Mathendous. In Galgien. - Pastoral fresco depicting four bovids: three on the left, one on the right. The coat is represented by alternating polished and unpolished areas. Width of the depicted panel: 1.30 m.

202 - Oued Mathendous. In Habeter III. - Physical destruction of a beautiful rock document. Several fragments have disappeared, and the remaining ones show a shift from the original depiction. The three upper blocks are 1.33 m wide.

203 - Oued Mathendous. In Galgien. - Exceptional engraved elephant from the Bubaline period. This beautiful document is one of the peaks of Saharan rock art and one of the finest line engravings. It highlights the artists' familiarity with their biotope. Note that the length of the tusks was limited by the dimensions of the rock. From the tail to the end of the trunk: 2.65 m long.

Maximilien Bruggmann et Jean Garzoni lors de l'inventaire de l'éléphant sur la photo précédente.

204 - Tadrart Acacous. Ouan Amil. - We enter a different world: that of the bovids, dominated by livestock farming. Rock art leads us to the idea that we are looking at a true visual imagery of the period. Many beautiful ochre paintings, sometimes highlighted with white, are found in shelters, as two fine examples at the edge of the Oued Amil on the next page’s photo. The naturalness of the characters and the accuracy of their postures stand out. The life of this time is represented realistically. The panel measures 1.43 m in height.

205 - Tadrart Acacous. Ouan Amil. - Typical landscape of Acacous with two large, deep shelters. One must imagine the flowing water, grass, trees, people, and their cattle to bring this place to life. We will travel through this impressive landscape over the next few photos.

206 - Ouan Amil (detail from photograph 204). - The central figure, slightly shifted upwards, measures 0.18 m in height and gives the scale. Not all details are identifiable, but they all demonstrate how much the artists emphasized realism. The figure mentioned above has a hairstyle identical to that of the others. It seems to be wearing a loincloth, while other figures are dressed in tunics finished with fringes. We are facing a true "reportage."

207 - Tadrart Acacous. Ouan Amil. – Another detail from photo 204: An archer walks behind another person going in the same direction. Both are slender. The archer wears a kind of transparent skirt (?) and measures 0.15 m in height.

208 - Tadrart Acacous. Ouan Amil. – A figure, whose importance is emphasized by their attire, is being assisted by two servants. Note the hairstyles, which, more than the Phrygian cap, evoke those of the women of Martinique. The fabrics feature interesting patterns.

209 - Tadrart Acacous. Ouan Amil. – Not only is the life of the bovids simple, but the artists who depict it also capture its intimacy. A figure, at the top left, is again assisted in their grooming by several others. To the right, a group is sitting and performing unclear actions. In the center at the bottom, although classically coiffed, a figure appears to be naked ... A scalariform structure is also visible on the left. Panel height: 0.46 m.

210 - Tadrart Acacous. Ouan Amil. – The two people shown here have a clear Europoid profile. They are exchanging undefined objects. The person on the left holds a sort of boomerang (?). Each holds a hook (?) in their hand. They appear to have no headgear. The figure on the right wears dark clothing, while the one opposite is entirely transparent and ends with a patterned band. Width of the displayed panel: 0.44 m.

211 - Tadrart Acacous. Ouan Amil. – The woman in the center is handing over a baby. This is remarkable because such acts are rare. At the top center, a figure with a tail – unless it's part of their loincloth hanging out – is gesticulating in an unnatural way.

212 - Tadrart Acacous. Ouan Amil. – Our bovids were also hunters. Here, an archer stands behind a giraffe, the bow drawn. Note the transparency of the “skirt.”

213 - Tadrart Acacous. Ouan Amil. – A deep familiarity of our bovids with their cattle leads to highly precise painted representations, such as this moving cow with a bicolored coat. Horns on the back leg: 0.33 m.

214 - Tadrart Acacous. Ouan Amil. – In the same style as the previous cow, a standing cow in front of another lying one. Above, a third with a “pack” on its back. The coat’s colors are rendered in red and white areas. From the muzzle of the lying cow to the muzzle of the standing cow: 0.47 m.

215 - Tadrart Acacous. Ouan Amil. – Two figures. One is white, on the right, with narrow thighs; the other is black, with wide thighs and a typically negroid morphology. They are depicted in the same posture. The "black" man holds a stick or a spear in his left hand. The "white" man holds a bow, also in his left hand. Height of the white man: 0.23 m.

216 - Tadrart Acacous. Ou an Amil. – Elongated figure, an archer of the bovidian type, holding the bow in the left hand. No arrow is visible. The hairstyle is familiar to us. A skirt, made of a net or mesh structure, seems to be worn over a kind of underwear. The bow measures 0.14 m from end to end.

217 - Tadrart Acacous. Oued Kessan. – Paintings of "diabolo" figures, whose shape is likely due to a belt pulling the tunic against the waist. The head is schematized by a line, generally surrounded by a pale ochre stain that is not always preserved. We are in the horse era here. The width of the tunic varies and either reaches the ankles or stops above the knees. The scenes depicted are much less lively than those from the bovidian era. Width of the panel: 0.55 m.

218 - Tadrart Acacous. Oued Kessan. – Another scene in the same style as the previous one. On the right side, women with children are depicted. Width of the panel: 0.84 m.

219 - Tadrart Acacous. Oued Kessan. – Three well-observed giraffes engraved by puncturing and fine lines. Width of the panel: 1.33 m.

220 - Tadrart Acacous. Tin-Achigh. – Equid era. Interesting painting showing that, like in Ouan Amil (photo 215), the figure of the white character wears a kind of black stole with white patterns on the right shoulder. He appears to have a hairstyle topped with a feather. He is long and narrow in the thighs. The figure with a short tunic behind him holds a spear in one hand and a tool (?) in the other, in contact with a curious segment of a circle. Bottom right, a small figure painted in red ochre. Height of the white figure: 0.21 m.

221 - Tadrart Acacous. Tin-Achigh. – Pastoral scene. A herd of bovids is followed by a shepherd in the style of Ouan Amil, holding a long staff in one hand, while the other rests on the waist. A difference in style can be noted between the animals depicted, indicating they are not from the same era. Width of the panel: 0.65 m.

222 - Tadrart Acacous. Tin-Achigh. – Very rare representation of a hand engraved in relief. Diagonally along the rock fracture, a crude Tifinagh inscription. Life-size.

223 - Tadrart Acacous. Tin-Achigh. – Beautiful giraffe finely engraved. At the bottom left, possibly a monkey and a figure difficult to identify. The whole is overloaded with horse epoch graffiti. Width of the depicted panel: 0.71 m.

224 - Tadrart Acacous. Tin-Achigh. – Two giraffes in a decadent style, completely dotted on the inside. To the left, the head and horn of a rhinoceros. To the right of the giraffe, a schematic and poorly engraved “diabolo” figure. Tifinar characters. Informal graffiti. Width of the depicted panel: 1.60 m.

225 - Tadrart Acacous. Tin-Achigh. – Seven red ochre painted figures sitting, six in a semicircle, one inside. The hairstyle is marked by a white spot. The figure at the top faces right, surrounded by unidentifiable figures. Below him, three seated people also face right, the last three face them. Width of the depicted panel: 0.57 m.

226 - Tadrart Acacous. Tin-Achigh. – Two seated people, wearing long tunics and bare feet, talking to each other. The figure on the left is 0.16 m tall.

227 - Tadrart Acacous. Tin-Achigh. – Three figures in tight white tunics, emphasizing the waist. The middle figure has black arms, but the rest of the body is white. He holds a stick in his left hand. The middle figure is 0.20 m tall. Note the white stick on the left.

228 - Tadrart Acacous. Teshouinat-Tagzelt. – A curious sight of two figures whose white tunics flare out at the bottom, possibly due to a rotating movement (?). A strange representation appears in the center, above the larger subject, who has suspended a round object from his left arm, which could be a shield. Noticeable ankle rings are visible here. The width from the right to the left tunic is 1.10 m.

229 - Tadrart Acacous. Teshouinat-Tagzelt. – Chariot period. Two horses in the posture of the “flying gallop.” A “diabolo” man runs behind them. Through a curious effect of false perspective, the painter depicted the platform chariot with its driver above it, but the reins are visible. At the bottom right, a goat is running. From the front hooves to the back hooves of the horses: 0.37 m in length.

230 - Tadrart Acacous. Teshouinat-Tagzelt. – Two-wheeled chariot with six spokes each, galloping. The same perspective error as in the previous picture: the chariot seems to fly above the horses. It appears that two people are seated on the platform. The red ochre painting is clumsy. Width of the depicted panel: 0.44 m.

231 - Tadrart Acacous. Teshouinat-Tagzelt. – Giraffe painted in white and overloaded with spots to represent the animal’s coat. Height of the animal: 0.36 m.

232 - Tadrart Acacous. Teshouinat-Tagzelt. - Figure with a "stick head", topped with two feathers. A double necklace around the neck and a double bracelet on the left arm. A piece of fabric or leather is also visible on the left side. Around the waist, two unexplained handles. Height of the represented surface: 0.25 m.

233 - Tadrart Acacous. Teshouinat-Tagzelt. - Engraved elephant, a depiction that is rare in the Acacous. From the front foot to the back foot: 1.23 m in length. (Photos 232, 234, and 237 come from the same shelter.)

233 - Tadrart Acacous. Teshouinat-Tagzelt. - (original photo) Engraved elephant, a depiction that is rare in the Acacous. From the front foot to the back foot: 1.23 m in length. (Photos 232, 234, and 237 come from the same shelter.)

234 - Tadrart Acacous. Teshouinat-Tagzelt. - Giraffe facing two barking dogs, which could be Sloughis. Width of the represented panel: 0.43 m. The painting technique is the same as the one used for the giraffe in photo 231.

235 - Tadrart Acacous. Teshouinat. - Complex series of figures, of which it is unclear whether they are dressed or not. Eight are painted in white, one in red. The figure at the bottom seems to wear a transparent cloak. The heads are topped with one or more feathers. A small bovine carries a symbol (?) above its head. Height of the represented panel: 0.72 m.

236 - Tadrart Acacous. Teshouinat. - "The man in the poncho" refers to the series of hairstyles from Ouan Amil. The poncho, if it is a poncho, is decorated with V-shaped patterns. The head has distinctly Europoid features. The hairstyle rounds off the shape of the object. Height of the figure, from the bottom of the front foot to the top of the hairstyle: 0.25 m.

237 - Tadrart Acacous. Teshouinat. - "Mouflon hunt". A pack of dogs converges towards its prey. Five dogs are painted in white and four in red, like the mouflon. In the top left, an archer runs toward the beast. The scene suggests that the author was very familiar with this type of scene. The large dog seems to attest to the existence of two breeds used by the hunters. Width of the represented panel: 0.64 m. (Photos 232, 234, and 237 - come from the same shelter.)

238 - Tadrart Acacous. Teshouinat. - Age of chariots. A vehicle drawn by four horses in "flying gallop". This time, one can clearly observe a "carrycot ", giving the driver an acceptable place. The four-spoked wheel raises questions, as it is the only one that could support the creation of wheels made from wood and leather. Width of the represented panel: 0.41 m.

239 - Tadrart Acacous. Tin-Anneouin. – Composite fresco featuring "diabolo" figures, palm trees, bovids, "flying gallop" chariots, etc. Several layers are superimposed here. Painted Tifinagh characters. Only red ochre was used.

240 - Tadrart Acacous. Tin-Anneouin. – A palm tree and an animal seemingly eating its leaves. It is the camels that allow the dating of the painting.

241 - Tadrart Acacous. Tin-Anneouin. – A man armed with a spear, attacking another figure wearing a long tunic tightly bound at the waist. Tifinagh characters.

242 - Tadrart Acacous. Tin-Anneouin. – Galloping chariot with two wheels, each with six spokes. A well-visible rectangular platform. The man holds either a javelin or a stick to urge the team (?) of three horses. In front on the right, a man in a long tunic holds a lance and a round shield. This figure is 0.15 m tall, and the chariot is 0.30 m.

243 - Tadrart Acacous. Tin-Anneouin. – Lying cows painted with red ochre. Bovidian period.

244 - Tadrart Acacous. Tin-Lalan. – Ritual intercourse scene between an exaggeratedly ithyphallic figure and a woman with Europoid features. This is a scene with a propitiatory character. See chapter "The History of a False Idea: Sex and the Desert". Height of the depicted panel: 1.50 m.

245 - Tadrart Acacous. Tin-Lalan. – Another ritual intercourse scene. This scene has become complex due to overpainting and is difficult to restore. The Europoid figure on the right is a false ithyphallic, the oversized genitals having been added later. The original scene seems to depict the right figure, the ithyphallic genitals at the top center, and the therocéphale facing a woman whose vulva corresponds to a rock defect.

246 - Tadrart Acacous. Tin-Lalan. – A woman in a gynological position, of decadent style. Due to clumsiness, the vulva seems to have been placed beneath the body. Above, a beautiful ostrich. This scene has no propitiatory character and can be attributed to the modern sexuality of the nomads.

247 - Tadrart Acacous. Tin-Lalan. – The nature of the scene, originally part of invoking the supernatural powers of fertility, has greatly degraded over time. The multiple retouches and difficulty in reconstructing the original work led F. Mori, who saw it, to deny its mythical character. See the chapter "The History of a False Idea: Sex and the Desert". Height of the central figure: 1.22 m.

248 - Tadrart Acacous. Tin-Lalan. – Detail of the female figure from the previous photograph (247). Width of the depicted panel: 0.82 m.

Chapter 4: MAGHREB - Algeria, Morocco, Mauritania

Sand dunes in the morning in the Western Great Erg near the small oasis town of Taghit on the Oued Zousfana, which only carries water in winter and spring.

The term ‘Maghreb’ is commonly used to describe the region in North Africa that stretches from Libya to Mauritania and also includes the present-day states of Tunisia, Algeria and Morocco. The Arabic word ‘Maghreb’ stands for the geographical west and literally refers to the ‘place of sunset’. The Neolithic way of life is evidenced not only by the rock paintings, but also by the numerous types of tools that can still be found today. The grating bowls and grating stones are particularly impressive. But there are also plenty of sickles, arrow shaft smoothers, occasionally even elaborately made tools with stone cuts and drilled holes, clay shards, etc., showing that today's desert area once offered a thoroughly liveable environment, some of which was stable for thousands of years.

249 - Moghar et-Taghtani (Algeria). - The famous slabs, known since 1847 and whose depiction was first published in 1849, are located in front of a landscape that already hints at a desert. It has been said that the real difference between the north and the south is the palm tree: it gives dates in the north and hard nuts in the south. The engravings on the slabs face the sparse gardens of the oasis.

250 - Moghar et-Taghtani (Algeria). - The deep and mysterious engraving is from the Neolithic age. Perhaps it depicts a man? But nothing is certain. This engraving is the first clue of an affirmed spirituality: it encapsulates an idea in a symbol whose meaning seems to elude us. This document is an enlargement of the previous photo. Height: 0.97 m.

251 - Moghar et-Taghtani (Algeria). - Engraving from the Bubaline age (Neolithic), often said to represent an archer. Nothing is less certain, although it is likely a human. Height: 0.37 m.

252 - Moghar et-Taghtani (Algeria). - Engraving from the Bubaline age. Some see the rear part of an animal. This is a hypothesis, no more. Height: 0.51 m.

253 - Moghar et-Taghtani (Algeria). - Beneath a finely engraved small bovine and two ostriches below its head, a curious being with its legs folded and open in a praying position. The vertical lines crossing the body remain unexplained. One must accept that the intention of the (or the) engraver cannot be revealed. Head diameter: 0.12 m.

254 - Moghar et-Taghtani (Algeria). - This beautiful set of Bubaline engravings is typical of the problem posed by interpreting works from this era. In the center, a figure with disheveled hair. The arms, whose hands are always highlighted, are in the so-called "praying" position. A line at chest height is unexplained. The figure wears a loincloth, part of which forms a tail (could it be an animal skin?). It dominates a scene in which a ritual appears to be performed. On the left, a curious hoofed animal with a "round" head carries strange horns. Its legs transition into a humanoid figure similar to those in photos 251 and 253 but may have a bow at the right arm. In the center and bottom, then to the right, two hoofed animals remove, through their engravings, any suggestion of clumsiness from the engraver. Note the links that seem attached to the hind legs of the two hoofed animals. Inside one of them, at the center, a small animal is engraved. The praying figure is 0.67 m in height.

255 - Thyout (Algeria). - A scene that shocked many at the end of the 19th century. It is now referred to as "The Hunting Lesson". In fact, at the top of this Neolithic engraving, there is a "placental bond" linking a mythical being with a hunter aiming at an ostrich followed by a dog. Between the "god" and the "creature" is a small, undefined ungulate. This is a scene of fertility invocation. The three engraved scenes below are of the same nature. On the far right of the photo, the hindquarters of a large bovine. The large figure at the bottom left measures 0.64 m in height.

256 - Thyout (Algeria). - The same scene as the previous one, but reduced to the two figures connected by the "placental bond".

257 - Thyout (Algeria). - This propitiatory scene depicts an "archer" holding an undefined object in his left hand. A placental bond connects him with a small figure.

258 - Taghit (Algeria). - Detail from photo 262. Engraved foot and hand.

259 - Taghit (Algeria). - Detail from photo 262. Engraving of a bovine and inexplicables signs.

260 - Taghit (Algeria). - Curious engraving of a bovine whose tail reaches a natural fissure, intentionally extending it. From the tip of the horn to the edge of the rock on the left: 2.40 m.

261 - Taghit (Algeria). - Engraving of a bovine executed with regular strokes. The head is lightly dotted. Another figure exists at the bottom right. The rest represents recent and crude overpainting. Width of the panel depicted: 1.30 m.

262 - Taghit (Algeria). - Large fresco showing many bovines and caprines oriented in both directions. There are only two representations of humans in the form of small schematic engravings slightly to the right of the center, at the bottom of the fresco. Above, further to the right, there is an engraved hand and foot. The slab measures between 1.70 m and 2 m in height and 4.50 m in length.

263 - Taghit (Algeria). - Detail from photo 262. Engravings in a uniform stroke style. Two schematic humans are clearly visible here.

264 - Taghit (Algeria). - Detail of photo 262. It seems the engraver wanted to depict all the species of ungulates he knew. The large central bovine measures 0.93 m from the top of the horns to the bottom of the front legs.

265 - Figuig (Morocco). - ‘Sacred’ sheep. The collar is only depicted on one side and was obviously not engraved at the same time as the animal. Only the lines above the head give the sheep a mysterious appearance. From the rump to the forehead: 0.80 metres.

266 - Tazka-Tafraout (Morocco). - Very schematically engraved ungulate (ram?). The genitals are, however, depicted. From the tip of the horn to the right front hoof: 1.54 m.

267 - Tazka-Tafraout (Morocco). - Engraving related to the previous one, but more elaborate. From the base of the tail to the tip of the horn: 1.96 m.

268 - Tigane (Morocco). - Gazelles, whose lightness is well conveyed by the engraving. Many lines without graphic organization may be traces of polishing. Width of the depicted panel: 0.45 m.

269 - Icht (Morocco). - Curious engraving with difficult identification. An ungulate is topped by another engraving that starts from the tail and ends at the snout. From the tail to the snout: 0.30 m.

270 - Azib n'Ikkis (Morocco). - Metal Age. Extraordinary bird (by the legs) with a square body. One leg has five toes, the other six. The wings (?) hang down with feathers (?). To the right, two daggers. Height of the subject: 0.95 m.

271 - Tigane (Morocco). - Deeply engraved animal. A hump dominates the neck, but it is unclear what it represents. Note the crosslines in the hindquarters. From the snout to the tail: 0.38 m.

272 - Tigane (Morocco). - Engraved rhinoceros. Interesting because of the climatic indication it gives. It is very schematic and shows only one horn. In the same style, between the legs, another indeterminate animal. Note the scattered lines across the entire depicted surface. Length: 0.14 m.

273 - Tigane (Morocco). - Epoch of the "bubale." Another engraved rhinoceros. This time it has two horns and well-marked ears. Length from the front horn to the hindquarters: 0.38 m.

274 - Smara. A very beautiful gazelle with thread-like legs, as many exist in the region. It is followed by another, less clearly carved, and topped by a smaller subject. Width of the depicted panel: 1.15 m.

275 - Region of Tiflit. - Elephants, schematically carved, with deep lines. The pair of legs is rendered by a median line in the legs. Height from the skull to the front foot: 0.35 m.

276 - Region of Merem. - A hooved animal on the left, and two giraffes on the right. The mane is exaggeratedly long. Notice that the use of the rock surface is maximized with the giraffe on the right. From the giraffe’s ears to the tips of its legs: 0.77 m.

277 - Region of Smara. - Bubale (the famous Pelorouis antiquus Duv.), whose horns, in aerial view, contrast with the body shown in profile. Deep-line engraving. One interpretation suggests the animal is lying down and struck by lines. Length from tail to snout: 0.27 m.

278 - Col d'Amoggiar (Mauritania). - Ochre painting, very clumsily depicting an animal with horns and a mane. From snout to hindquarters: 0.16 m in length.

279 - Col d'Amoggiar (Mauritania). - Ochre painting of a "solar" symbol with four small inner circles. The fifteen rays are not joined with the circle. Two hands, one in negative (in red ochre), are visible on the left. Diameter of the solar symbol: 0.18 m.

280 - Col d'Amoggiar (Mauritania). - Ostrich painted in yellowish-white. From head to feet: 0.09 m in height.

281 - Col d'Amoggiar (Mauritania). - Fresco of figures painted in red ochre in a small, isolated rock shelter. At the top left, standing figures can be seen, each with the right hand on the hip and the left hand extended towards the neighbor. The second holds a bow in the right hand. The third holds the second's hand and wears a balloon-like skirt. Below, on the right, a rider, a seated person, and a small bovine. The work is heavily degraded by wind erosion.

282 - Oumat-el-Ham (Mauritania). - Two antelopes painted in red ochre, facing each other with their rear ends. The animal on the right shows only one front and one hind leg. Length from snout to snout: 0.38 m.

283 - Oumat-el-Harn (Mauritania). - A rhinoceros painted in red ochre (discovered by Maximilien Bruggmann in 1969). Length: 0.18 m.

284 - Noudache (Mauritania). - A chariot in a very decadent style, difficult to date. The interest of this chariot, painted in red ochre and drawn by oxen, lies in the driver’s donkey head. From the oxen's head to the driver's head: 0.25 m.

285 - Noudache (Mauritania). - A chariot drawn by two oxen, executed in red ochre. Two-wheeled axle. The driver here is a man. The giraffe is unintentionally comic due to the length of its neck and the excessively long tail. From the giraffe’s snout to the driver’s head: 0.48 m.

Chapter 5: TADRART - Algeria

This rock formation, the so-called ‘Cathedral’ of Tamesguida, is located in the Algerian Tadrart. The rocks were formed by the constant wind.

The Tassili Tadrart (also known as the Red Tadrart) is the southern extension of the Tadrart Acacus. It is located in the south-east of Algeria, bordering Libya to the east and the Niger to the south. The mountain range is criss-crossed by west-east orientated, gorge-like wadis, of which In Djaren is the largest. The Tassili Tadrart has magnificent rock paintings that cover a long chronological span from the early Neolithic to modern times. Walls and overhangs at the bottom of the wadis are littered with rock paintings and rock engravings that document the climate change of the area from a savannah 10,000 years ago to a desert 5,000 years ago. The rock art changed over time from wild fauna such as elephants, rhinos, giraffes, antelopes, wild cattle to domesticated animals such as sheep, horses and finally camels.

286 - El Beridj (Tadrart). - The cliffs have been, in prehistory and even up to today, favored places by humans seeking a habitat. One site of El Beridj is located at the end of the rocky spur to the right. Photos 287 and 288.

287 - El Beridj (Tadrart). - Bubaline age engravings, but very difficult to read. The anatomical precision is quite remarkable here. Five bovid species are identified, and on the right, a later depiction of a giraffe. Width of the panel: 4 m.

288 - El Beridj (Tadrart). - Detail from the previous photo.

289 - El Beridj (Tadrart). - Return to the “diabolo” type of man. This fresco, painted in red ochre and white paint, is located in a deep shelter with a low ceiling. Figures can be seen, including a rider, dogs, goats... A figure painted in white (the “Kokopelli,” according to ethnographers of the Native Americans) playing a flute. Height: 0.15 m.

290 - El Beridj (Tadrart). - At the entrance of the shelter, a hunting scene with a mouflon. It is attacked by three dogs, two red and one white, of which it is unclear whether they are Sloughis. From the tip of the horn to the tail: 0.20 m.

291 - El Beridj (Tadrart). - Large fresco painted in red ochre and white. It measures 2.50 m in width. A large number of bovid species are painted. The animals are on average 0.20 m to 0.25 m in length. Their execution is sometimes very fine (see the red bull, at the top left of the center).

292 - El Beridj (Tadrart). - Deer (?) chased by a dog (Sloughi?). From the animal's muzzle to the dog's tail: 0.55 m in length.

293 - El Beridj (Tadrart). - Beautiful naturalistic engraving of great ethnographic interest, as while bovids interest us because of the beauty of the lines, engraved containers are extremely rare: if one is found, characterized by its opening, it could be dated. In that case, we would also have the age of the engraving. Width of the block presented: about 2 m.

294 - Merkadaoui (Tadrart). - Remarkably painted sheep (?). From the hind leg to the animal's muzzle: 0.25 m.

295 - Merkadaoui (Tadrart). - Red ochre fresco, isolating the sheep from the previous painting.

296 - In Djaren (Tadrart). - Red ochre fresco. Character with a short tunic at the top; with a long tunic at the bottom. The upper figures are exchanging weapons. The lower figure, wearing a long tunic (a woman?), holds unidentified objects. In the lower right corner, a figure raises a stick with one hand and touches an animal with the other. The man in the upper left is 0.17 m tall.

297 - In Djaren (Tadrart). - The red ochre painting of a woman being dressed by others is already known and pertains to the same pastoral ethnic group. In fact, the picture has two groups: the left group shows a woman at her toilette, while the right one depicts a character holding a stick or long object. The scene is difficult to interpret. The panel measures 0.55 m.

298 - Tan Ekli (Tadrart). - Astonishing frieze showing cows engraved in the best naturalistic style of high quality. The dotted contours form circles that allow the depiction of the animals' coat. Between the legs of the bovine, whose rear end is the only part visible, there is a very small figure.

299 - In Djaren (Tadrart). - Shelter. Spearman (?). This figure, painted in white, is in the style of Ouan Amil (photo 215): same morphology and same style.

300 - In Djaren (Tadrart). - Shelter. Javelin thrower (?): The javelin appears in one of the man's hands. The movement of quick walking is well rendered. Height from head to foot: 0.17 m.

301 - ln Djaren (Tadrart). - Shelter. A fresco in red ochre depicting a therocéphale with a head topped by an oblong sphere. It appears to hold a club in its left hand. Behind it are strange animals, the largest of which, despite appearances, is merely an ungulate.

302 - Ou an Ouksem (Tadrart). - Shelter. A fresco of bovids from the "bovid" period painted in white and red. In the top right, one bovid is above another. The panel shown measures 1.10 m in width.

303 - Ouan Ouksem (Tadrart). - Shelter. Two figures walking (perhaps talking?) painted in red ochre. The figure on the left measures 0.15 m in height from head to foot.

304 - Ouan Ouksem (Tadrart). - Shelter. A large fresco of sheep painted in white. In the lower left, a figure with raised arms may be a later addition. The height of the figure is 0.07 m.

305 - ln Djaren (Tadrart). - Shelter. Considering the basic tools used to create this masterpiece, one can only be amazed. This giraffe, painted in red ochre, is truly surprising. It is also noteworthy that the work, done in a shelter, does not receive direct light. Length 0.43 m.

306 - ln Djaren. - The shelter of the painted giraffe. Photo 305.

307 - ln Djaren (Tadrart). - On a large pyramidal rock, there is an engraved fresco showing eight elephants. From the "bubale" period. The engraving is shallow, executed through pitting with remarkable attention to accuracy. The last elephant is defecating. Below, there is a frieze of figures also engraved, but at a later date.

308 - Drawing by Maximilien Bruggmann showing how the engraver depicted the last elephant in photo 307.

308 - (original photo) Drawing by Maximilien Bruggmann showing how the engraver depicted the last elephant in photo 307.

309 - ln Djaren South (Tadrart). - A carved elephant charging a hunter wearing an "Ouan Amil" hat. The man holds a weapon. A second elephant appears in the background. The distance from the back leg of the elephant to the front foot of the man is 1.05 m.

310 - ln Djaren (pyramidal rock, Tadrart). - Three men with shaved heads and beards. Two look to the left, the third to the right. The figure in the middle and the one on the right are ithyphallic. One of them holds a spear, all have an Europoid profile. The height of the right figure from head to foot is 0.70 m.

311 - In Djaren (Tadrart). - Small rabbit with a very distinctive profile. It looks to the left. Life size.

312 - In Djaren (Tadrart). - Fish shown from different perspectives: one in profile, another, which is very rare, from an aerial view. This highlights the engravers’ familiarity with aquatic fauna. From the head to the tip of the tail of the large fish: 0.50 m.

313 - In Djaren (Tadrart). - Bovids licking their left rear foot. The engraving by puncturing is astonishingly precise. From the front hoof to the base of the tail: 0.67 m.

314 - Ouan Zouaten (Tadrart, region of In Djaren). - Procession of engraved bovids. Width of the depicted panel: 2.50 m.

315 - Bou Ediane (Tadrart, region of In Djaren). - Rock painting under a shelter showing many figures, all wearing a short tunic tightly fastened at the waist or a long one. The height differences among the figures may be an attempt to respect perspective? Quite a few animals. Men armed with a stick or spear. Heads in the “hyphen” style. The tallest figure, on the left, is 0.42 m in height.

316 - Bou Ediane (region of In Djaren, Tadrart). - Figures with long or short tunics, painted in red or white. The one on the right appears to be holding a spear and a rectangular shield. The one on the left, painted white, holds a bow in the left hand and wears three feathers on its head. The white tunic reaches down to the feet. The white figure is 0.40 m tall.

317 - Bou Ediane (Tadrart, Shelter). - Antelope painted in red and white. Below, a very thin cow, with its udders clearly highlighted. From the front legs to the back legs: 0.60 m.

318 - Bou Ediane (Tadrart, Guelta). – Two well-preserved spotted giraffes. Their tails are curled. The body is entirely dotted. The front legs are in the drinking position of a giraffe. A horn on the front hoof of the left animal: 0.95 m.

319 - Tin Abedine (Tadrart). – An engraved bull with its legs beginning to disappear under the sand. Note the rare pattern on the coat represented by spiral lines, and the lyre-shaped horns. From the snout to the base of the tail: 0.75 m.

320 - Tin Abedine (Tadrart). – To the left, a man holding a pot, followed by three giraffes going in the same direction as him. The giraffes and the man are beginning to sink seriously into the sand. From the horn of the right giraffe to the level of the sand: about 1.70 m.

321 - Ouan Adjane (Tadrart). – Ceiling of a shelter with bovid paintings in two colors. Width of the depicted panel: 0.95 m.

322 - Ouan Adjane (Tadrart). – White-painted figures with curious trilobed heads. The central figure holds a stick and seems to threaten the figure on the left. The figure on the right is only remarkable for the appendage hanging between its legs. Width of the depicted panel: 0.45 m.

323 - Tisseteka (Tadrart). – Yellow ochre-painted giraffe. The hind legs are highly exaggerated. From the hind hoof to the head: 0.30 m.

324 - Tisseteka (Tadrart). – Beautiful fresco painted on the ceiling of a shelter. Bovids with lyre-shaped or hanging horns. The coat of an animal in the middle left is represented by dotted lines. A large bovid at the bottom is lying with one leg folded against its belly. Width of the depicted panel: 0.75 m.

Chapter 6: TASSILI N'AJJER - Algeria

In the Tin-Messeous area there are many stone forests with shelters where rock paintings can be found. A typical landscape in the Tassili n' Ajjer.

The Tassili n'Ajjer mountain range is known for its prehistoric rock paintings and rock engravings and other archaeological sites from the Neolithic period. A large part of the mountain range was protected by a national park in 1972, which has been recognised as a World Heritage Site and World Natural Heritage Site since 1982. It was also designated a biosphere reserve in 1986.

325 - Aouanrhet (Tassili-n'Ajjer). - Archer running. He is wearing a colored loincloth. His appearance is Negroid. The head resembles that of a praying mantis. The right hand lifts a bow and an arrow above the head. The hand of the extended arm forward is empty. The loincloth is white with a tinge of purple, and the rest of the body is painted with red ochre. From the rear foot to the top of the head: 0.17 m.

326 - Aouanrhet (Tassili-n'Ajjer). - Very slender figures. Very schematic white paintings. The figure in front holds two sticks on one shoulder and a hook (a hoe?) in the other hand. Behind him, an archer seems to be chasing him, but perhaps they are both heading in the same direction in pursuit of game. The left figure measures 0.19 m in height.

326 - Aouanrhet (Tassili-n'Ajjer). - (original photo) Very slender figures. Very schematic white paintings. The figure in front holds two sticks on one shoulder and a hook (a hoe?) in the other hand. Behind him, an archer seems to be chasing him, but perhaps they are both heading in the same direction in pursuit of game. The left figure measures 0.19 m in height.

327 - Aouanrhet (Tassili-n'Ajjer). - Small gazelle in brown ochre. On the right, a man painted in white. From the bottom of the legs to the tips of the horns: 0.21 m.

328 - Aouanrhet (Tassili-n'Ajjer). - Mysterious fresco organized around two black circles, from which four rays extend to the left, ending in circles covered with a lattice pattern. These circles are all open outward. Between two open circles, at the bottom right, an independent round structure contains two seated people and a child. On the left, but in the open air, a man stands. On the opposite side, at the opposite edge, there is also a black circle from which two rays extend, also ending in round, lattice-like, and open structures. A third ray seems to lead nowhere. Finally, outside of what might be a hut, there is a seated figure. On the left figure, there is also a circle containing another with small rays. The entire painting is done in red ochre, and the represented panel measures 1.36 m.

329 - Aouanrhet (Tassili-n'Ajjer). - Detail of the previous structure. Diameter of the "hut": 0.20 m.

330 - Aouanrhet (Tassili-n'Ajjer). - On the left, two standing figures. On the right, a coitus scene and figures that are hard to identify. The coitus scene measures 0.16 m in width.

331 - Aouanrhet (Tassili-n'Ajjer). - Fresco of figures dominated by one wearing an improbable hairstyle resembling the coif of the Sisters of Saint-Vincent-de-Paul; none of them appear to be dressed. Width of the panel shown: 0.70 m.

332 - Aouanrhet (Tassili-n'Ajjer). - Large masked figure with arm and leg ornaments. On the left, a scene called the "lying swimmer" (?) and other depictions that are difficult to interpret. In the center, note the presence of a woman with tattooed breasts. Width of the panel shown: 2.25 m.

333 - Aouanrhet (Tassili-n'Ajjer). - Detail of the previous panel: the woman with tattooed breasts, painted in red ochre. Negroid type.

334 - Aouanrhet (Tassili-n'Ajjer). - The "White Lady" and the "Masked Sorcerer". The "White Lady" has nothing to do with her namesake from South Africa, who charmed Abbé Breuil, nor with a local depiction of another highly adorned woman. Here, it is a massive figure with a "round head" crowned with a feather (?). Facing her, on the left, the face of a man wearing a white loincloth, with his body depicted in a pattern of small diamonds. Everything is typically African.

335 - Aouanrhet (Tassili-n'Ajjer). - The true "White Lady" of Tassili. Notice the "horned mask." The attire is typically African. A mystical feeling emanates from this painting. From one horn to the other: about 0.50 m.

336 - Oued Djérat (Tassili-n'Ajjer). - A large bubale (antelope) engraved, with the tips of its horns separated by 1 m. This "leading fossil" of the oldest rock art is beautifully rendered here and corresponds to what animal paleontology teaches us. It is overlaid with a very beautiful double spiral and other unremarkable graffiti.

337 - Oued Djérat (Tassili-n'Ajjer). - A typical landscape of this conservatory of ancient images of vanished peoples. On the horizontal slab, large oxen are engraved with deep strokes.

338 - Oued Djérat (Afar-Mellah, Tassili-n'Ajjer). - A large bubale (Peloroois antiquus Duv.) engraved, with a kneeling (?) figure behind it, holding its right hand toward its tail. On the head, one can distinguish either bristling hair or feathers. A belt with three stripes is clearly visible.

339 - Oued Djérat (Tassili-n'Ajjer). - A large engraved ox, whose brow has been redone twice. A newer spiral surmounts it as if to summon the arrival of water.

340 - Oued Djérat (rock shelter between Aha and Anafeg, Tassili-n'Ajjer). - A painted chariot, drawn by two horses, galloping in a "flying gallop." This may be a battle scene, with men lying in front of the chariot. The ochre painting shows the driver in a good posture, but how could he balance on the platform?

341 - Oued Djérat (Tassili-n'Ajjer). - Another chariot in the "flying gallop," painted in ochre. The perspective is better observed here, as the reins go directly from the driver's hands to the necks of the two horses. The axle ends in two wheels with four spokes. Three spears inclined forward seem to be fixed on the platform. Two dogs run alongside the chariot. Below, three men in short tunics carry shields. Three others precede the horses: they are armed with spears and shields. One of them has a head resembling that of a dog.

342 - Oued Djérat (Tassili-n'Ajjer, between Aha and Anafeg). - Ochre painting of a chariot with three horses. The perspective is incorrect: the chariot appears to be flying above the horses. This chariot period marks the peak of the Horse Period. Large figure on the left. On the right, a small figure that is difficult to observe.

343 - Oued Djérat (Tassili-n'Ajjer, between Aha and Anafeg). - Large bovine painted in red ochre. It partly obscures a chariot, and the number of horses is hard to determine. Above the bovine's back, there is a small quadruped painted in white and red. It is followed by men, who are preceded by a little devil. A white square is found at the center of the ox. Its explanation has yet to be found.

344 - Oued Djérat (Tassili-n'Ajjer). - Chariot engraved in "flying gallop." The driver seems to be thrown backward. The wheels on the right side have four spokes, while those on the left have six. From whip (?) to horse's nose, the distance is 0.72 m.

344 - Oued Djérat (Tassili-n'Ajjer). - (original photo) Chariot engraved in "flying gallop." The driver seems to be thrown backward. The wheels on the right side have four spokes, while those on the left have six. From whip (?) to horse's nose, the distance is 0.72 m.

345 - Oued Djérat (Tassili-n'Ajjer, guelta de Tin-Smad). - Engraved chariot drawn by two horses, shown in a "flat" view and positioned oppositely relative to the yoke. Width of the panel shown: 0.65 m.

346 - Oued Djérat (Tassili-n'Ajjer, Tin-Smad). - Engraved chariot of good quality, showing the difficulty of standing on a small platform while galloping, whether flying or not. Two spears are fixed to the floor of the chariot. From the driver’s head to the front hooves: 0.72 m.

347 - Oued Djérat (Tassili-n'Ajjer, shelter between Aha and Anafeg). - Painted chariot with three horses. The platform seems independent of the driver. The reins are anachronistically depicted. Dark brown figures are in front of the chariot, two of which carry sticks.

348 - Oued Djérat (Tassili-n'Ajjer, same shelter). - Bovid, two-toned in red and white, moving from left to right. A deer (?) is visible at the top left. Below, there is a procession of figures in short tunics.

349 - Oued Djérat (Tassili-n'Ajjer, same shelter). - Bovid, antelopes, and various animals painted in ochre and white. On the right, warriors with spears are visible. Very fine painting with ochre, ranging from dark brown to a wine-red tone. A man armed with a spear also holds a strange object ending in a hook, which is common in this area.

350 - Oued Djérat (Tassili-n'Ajjer, same shelter). - White and ochre paintings depicting horned bovids with lyre-shaped horns. The central figure appears to wear, like in Ouan Amil, a cape or stole falling from the shoulder. On the left, a cow with clearly depicted udders. Note the extensive representation of figures with long or short tunics, but tightly cinched at the waist.

351 - Oued Djérat (Tassili-n'Ajjer, near Aha-Anafeg). - The famous engraved archer has a stylized figure. He wears a headgear and holds a bow as if he has just shot an arrow. He might have a lightly fringed cape on his back. The belt, formed by a double line, extends with a floating tail. It appears that he carries a phallic sheath inserted into the belt, leaving the testicles exposed, as some regional ethnographies still show. Note the double spiral in the left corner and modern graffiti.

352 - Oued Djérat (Tassili-n'Ajjer). - Engraved warrior inspired by the previous engraving. However, the head this time is that of a cynocephalus (dog-headed figure). The legs are well-rendered. The belt consists of six lines. The bow is held by its wood in the left hand. Curiously, only the toes of the left foot are engraved. The man is followed by a dog.

353 - Oued Djérat (Tassili-n'Ajjer). - At the junction of the Oued Touloult lies this depiction, which is linked to a very ancient fertility cult, now only visited by lonely nomads. Such representations are often degraded. For further explanation, see the chapter titled: "History of a False Idea. Sex and the Desert." (See: SAR-007B)

354 - Oued Djérat (Tassili-n'Ajjer). - Engraved subjects of different ages; the ungulate on the right is thus "accidentally" facing a figure engraved with a lighter stroke, probably wearing a loincloth.

355 - Oued Djérat (Tassili-n'Ajjer). - Finely engraved calf with polished head, belly, and legs. The hooves are well observed. Around the neck, a necklace with a pendant. The head of a sheep hidden by the calf appears at the chest level.

356 - Oued Djérat (Tassili-n'Ajjer, between Tin-Smad and the confluence of the Oued Touloult). - Ox - fat, with short legs and a massive body. The head, however, is quite normal, and at the neck, a collar ends with a long pendant. On the right, the rear of another "fat" ox is visible, and beneath it, an elegant giraffe deeply engraved.

357 - Oued Djérat (Tassili-n'Ajjer). - The engraving of the bovine head above is of superior craftsmanship. It is topped by another, more awkward and later head. This one is dotted.

358 - Oued Djérat (Tassili-n'Ajjer). - Bovine engraved with lines. One ear passes under the right horn.

359 - Oued Djérat (Tassili-n'Ajjer). - Engraved ox whose coat is depicted by alternating polished and dotted areas.

360 - Oued Djérat (Tassili-n'Ajjer). - Head of a bovine engraved by pitting and finished with lines through friction. One would expect to hear it moo.

361 - Oued Djérat (Tassili-n'Ajjer). - Engraved ox with a very long ear and horns bent forward. Sketch made by pitting, finished with lines. Traces of internal polishing.

362 - Oued Djérat (Tassili-n'Ajjer). - Engraved hyena. The line is awkward, and it is likely a later work. But the animal is easily recognizable by its snout and mane.

363 - Oued Djérat (Tassili-n'Ajjer). - Sheep, easily identifiable. The hind legs are perfectly drawn. The depiction of the head approximates the natural curve of the muzzle.

364 - Oued Djérat (Tassili-n'Ajjer). - Engraved scene of ritual intercourse. The male character, whose head is located at the top left, is a therianthrope, with only its left leg having something human about it. The head of the woman he is mating with is neither animal nor human. See the chapter "The History of a False Idea: Sex and the Desert". (See: SAR-007B)

365 - Oued Djérat (Tassili-n'Ajjer). - Drawing from a photo of an engraved rhinoceros. The head has always posed a problem for both engravers and painters.

365 - Oued Djérat (Tassili-n'Ajjer). - (original photo) Drawing from a photo of an engraved rhinoceros. The head has always posed a problem for both engravers and painters.

366 - Oued Djérat (Tassili-n'Ajjer, confluence of the Wadi Touloult) – When one realizes that the spirals, like the rhinoceros, were engraved using only stone flakes, one can only admire the two triple spirals and the rhinoceros at the bottom, on the left thigh of which a clumsy artist tried to replicate the same masterpiece. There are also more spirals at the top.

The T4 mission team in front of the engravings of the spirals in the Oued Djérat (Tassili-n'Ajjer). From the left: a Touareg, Edouard Bois de Chesne, commissioned by television to make a five-part film series about the Sahara, Mrs Eva Bruggmann, Pascal Pol, Sylvio Acatos, journalist, and Maximilien Bruggmann, head of Mission T4.

367 - Oued Djérat (Tassili-n'Ajjer) – Two rhinoceroses: one large and one small, engraved with fine lines. The larger one has exaggerated horns and its sex is emphasized. The main engravings of the so-called "Ethiopian" large fauna bring us back to the Neolithic. Essential parts of it will disappear with it.

368 - Oued Djérat (Tassili-n'Ajjer) – Engraved rhinoceros with highly exaggerated horns. It seems that these horns were retouched at a later time, restoring the engraver’s full artistry and giving the rhinoceros its precise form. From tail to horn, it measures 1.75 meters in length.

369 - Oued Djérat (Tassili-n'Ajjer) – Schematic rhinoceros engraved with a deep line.

370 - Oued Djérat (Tassili-n'Ajjer) – Late period. Engraved rhinoceros with a head larger than the body.

371 - Oued Djérat (Tassili-n'Ajjer) – Rhinoceros walking in a possible charging position. Note how the front horn is connected to the snout.

372 - Oued Djérat (Tassili-n'Ajjer) – Drawing of a naturalistic rhinoceros by Maximilien Bruggmann.

372 - Oued Djérat (Tassili-n'Ajjer) – (original photo) Drawing of a naturalistic rhinoceros by Maximilien Bruggmann.

373 - Oued Djérat (Tassili-n'Ajjer) – Engraving of a rhinoceros defecating. The position of the ears, like the front horn, gives this animal an unexpected appearance.

374 - Oued Djérat (Tassili-n'Ajjer) – Magnificent engraved giraffe head. The outline, initially dotted, was finished with a smoothing stone. The interior was decorated with dotted lines.

375 - Oued Djérat (Tassili-n'Ajjer, Tin-Smad). - Full body of the Tin-Smad giraffe, whose head is the subject of the previous photo (374). In fact, the body is less well rendered by the engraver than the head.

376 - Oued Djérat (Tassili-n'Ajjer, Tin-Smad region). - Other giraffes engraved with different coats. At the top right, a dressed and bent figure.

377 - Oued Djérat (Tassili-n'Ajjer). - Antelope engraved on a very weathered rock. The head is difficult to describe.

378 - Oued Djérat (Tassili-n'Ajjer). - Deeply engraved dog (?). The depiction of the animal with its head turned is quite rare and gives grace to the engraving.

379 - Oued Djérat (Tassili-n'Ajjer). - Antelope or goat. The deeply engraved animal is highly stylized. The coat is represented by a series of engraved lines. Note the spirals, one with two turns and the other, more irregular, with only one.

380 - Oued Djérat (Tassili-n'Ajjer). - Engraved Addax (?). The lines are regular and shallow. The design was pre-punched.

381 - Oued Djérat (Tassili-n'Ajjer). - Antelope (?). The coat is rendered by vertical lines.

382 - Oued Djérat (Tassili-n'Ajjer). - Engraved elephant with "butterfly ears." It is located at the beginning of the Oued Abezza.

383 - Oued Djérat (Tassili-n'Ajjer, Oued Abezza). - Another engraved elephant. The trunk is ridged. The forehead is too sloping. The tusks are tiny.

384 - Oued Djérat (Tassili-n'Ajjer). - Engraved elephant. The trunk is drawn towards the lower jaw. The eye is depicted "Indian style." The elephant's legs are surmounted by an engraved ostrich.

385 - Oued Djérat (Tassili-n'Ajjer). - Elephant with dotted outline. Note the presence of the sex.

386 - Oued Djérat (Tassili-n'Ajjer, Oued Abezza). - Drawing by Maximilien Bruggmann, based on an engraving of an elephant.

386 - Oued Djérat (Tassili-n'Ajjer, Oued Abezza). - (original photo) Drawing by Maximilien Bruggmann, based on an engraving of an elephant.

387 - Oued Djérat (Tassili-n'Ajjer). - Beautiful engraving of a large elephant. The ears are squared with lines, but the eyes are shown flat on the same plane!

388 - Oued Djérat (Tassili-n'Ajjer). - Herd of ostriches, deeply engraved. The animals are roughly depicted. These birds might explain the feathers often found in the headgear of men.

389 - Oued Djérat (Tassili-n'Ajjer). - Superficially dotted ostrich. There is evidence that the ostrich survived long beyond the fertile period.

390 - Oued Djérat (Tassili-n'Ajjer). - Engraved birds. Their beaks do not allow identification as ostriches.

391 - Oued Djérat (Tassili-n'Ajjer). - On an isolated rock, this extraordinary frieze of birds is discovered. Likely pelicans. There are about a dozen birds, but only the head has been depicted.

392 - Oued Djérat (Tassili-n'Ajjer). - Finally came the camel! In the final phase of the Sahara's fertility. The horse itself disappeared. In the Sahara, the dromedary (wrongly called "camel"), the donkey, and the goat remain. The current harshness of the climate and the difficulty of survival fully explain the extreme poverty of camel art.

393 - Oued Djérat (Tassili-n'Ajjer). - Tuareg warrior. Modern ethnography accounts for the entire equipment of both man and beast.

394 - Oued Djérat (Tassili-n'Ajjer). - Modern "camel" (Camelus dromedarius) as seen by the inhabitants of the Sahara.

394 - Oued Djérat (Tassili-n'Ajjer). - (original photo) Modern "camel" (Camelus dromedarius) as seen by the inhabitants of the Sahara.

395 - Oued Djérat (Tassili-n'Ajjer). - Tuareg warriors. The armament of the descendants of Berber immigrants was formidable: spear, javelin, sword known as "takouba", arm dagger, antelope skin shield.

396 - Oued Djérat (Tassili-n'Ajjer). - Since the men in tight tunics, the Sahara has been a vast battlefield. The "lancer" depicted here must be quite ancient. Moreover, the Tuaregs had long imposed taxes on those who wished to pass through their territory peacefully.

397 - Oued Djérat (Tassili-n'Ajjer). - Nevertheless, the legends grafted onto ancient myths have never ceased to be in circulation. More than a theriocephalus, the figure shown here evokes a devil and refers to a hundred legends about the "djinn."

398 - Jabbaren (Tassili-n'Ajjer). - Painting from the period known as the "round heads". A composition reminiscent of modern "Martians". All in shades from yellow to brown. Sometimes the heads are completely spherical. Here, one feels powerless to interpret what the eye observes, as it neither corresponds to what we know nor to what we believe. No regular lines, no familiar objects. How one would like to understand what the artists were trying to tell us! At the center of the panel, a procession of figures rendered in dark brown. On their heads, there are horns (?) or baskets with handles. The costumes are as difficult to describe as the heads. Height of the figure: 0.78 m.

399 - Jabbaren (Tassili-n'Ajjer). - Mural of the same type as the previous one, treated in dark brown. Height of the central figure: 0.32 m.

400 - Jabbaren (Tassili-n'Ajjer). - White painting of two figures with "round heads". In reality, their heads are red. On the right, note the "transparent skirt". Width of the depicted panel: 0.78 m.

401 - Jabbaren (Tassili-n'Ajjer). - The "Abyssinian". This magnificent painting presents an individual with fine features, abundant hair, and a beard. There are not only White and Black people. A whole ethnic group consists of "Whites with dark skin". They are numerous in East Africa and once frequented the Sahara.

402 - Jabbaren (Tassili-n'Ajjer). - This is a true "Neolithic city", in other words, a "place of life". It is in this shelter that the famous "Abyssinian" was created, which can be seen in the upper right quarter of the photo. The feet are nearly invisible.

403 - Jabbaren (Tassili-n'Ajjer). - General view of another shelter, whose walls are covered in polychrome paintings ranging from white to dark brown. It should be noted that these are men with a distinctly Negroid morphology. Almost all of them are depicted in an aggressive posture, running, often with a bow in hand. Also noteworthy are the curved, narrower structures in front and thicker at the back. The depiction of bovids remains very naturalistic. We are still in the "bovid era". Width of the depicted panel: 2.60 m.

404 - Jabbaren (Tassili-n'Ajjer). - Detail from photo 403. At the top left and bottom right, bovids are shown ridden by three figures. At the top, in front of the cow, a runner precedes them at high speed. Above the yellow ox, which he overtakes on the right, an archer appears to be drawing his bow, while behind him, a man holds a bundle of arrows (?) and walks in front of another who carries a staff resting on his hips. This is still a familiar attitude among shepherds today.

405 - Jabbaren (Tassili-n'Ajjer). - In the center of this other detail from photo 403, an archer holds a bow in front of him, with his arms outstretched, painted in a curious white color. He is distinctly dolichocephalic, his body is slender and very long-limbed. The male sex is clearly marked. Above him, slightly to the left, is a magnificent bovine painted with fine lines but without any coloration of the fur.

406 - Jabbaren (Tassili-n'Ajjer). - Detail from photo 403. Archers with well-stocked quivers appear to be attacking an enemy. Upon viewing these scenes, it is clear that this black ethnicity is engaged in warfare, not hunting.

407 - Jabbaren (Tassili-n'Ajjer). - Final detail of panel 403. The galloping archer is clearly visible in his pastoral bovine setting.

408 - Jabbaren (Tassili-n'Ajjer). - Hunting scene (?). The archers seem to be facing animals. Note that the quiver is worn on the left side. It is also possible that the quiver is a "ring" hanging from the belt, as the arrows are distinctly visible in front and behind the body at waist level. The figures measure between 0.13 m and 0.18 m in height.

409 - Jabbaren (Tassili-n'Ajjer). - Two running archers. Between 0.13 m and 0.18 m in height.

410 - Jabbaren (Tassili-n'Ajjer). - Two more archers. The first, on the left, has six arrows in his "quiver" and holds his bow in the air. The bow is always simple and shows no variations. However, there are hundreds of different arrowhead forms. Width of the represented panel: 0.43 m.

411 - Jabbaren (Tassili-n'Ajjer). - Archer, like his companions, painted in red ochre. A remnant of white paint indicates the existence of a loincloth that has since disappeared. On the archer at the bottom left, the white loincloth is more visible. Height of the figure in the center: 0.16 m.

412 - Jabbaren (Tassili-n'Ajjer). - Still archers, who seem to have held an important place in the artists' minds. An antelope is visible in the center. Height of the archer: 0.16 m.

413 - Jabbaren (Tassili-n'Ajjer). - Pastoral scene, painted in red ochre. Below, schematically, a hunting scene is depicted. The figures at the top are dressed in "tunics." Width of the scene depicted: 1.10 m.

414 - Jabbaren (Tassili-n'Ajjer). - Curious ochre painting with beings having very "puffed-up" hair, as is occasionally encountered. Some of them seem to be touching it. Some of the figures are seated. Width of the rock: 0.74 m.

415 - Jabbaren (Tassili-n'Ajjer). - Stylized birds. Based on their thighs, they are probably ostriches. The legs are painted with red ochre. The contours of the body are indicated by a thick white line.

416 - Jabbaren (Tassili-n'Ajjer). - Body of an ostrich painted in white, preceded by a young ostrich. Width of the panel: 2.55 m.

417 - Jabbaren (Tassili-n'Ajjer). - Hunting scene rendered in red ochre. A gazelle and an antelope are being pursued by hunters.

418 - Jabbaren (Tassili-n'Ajjer). - Hunting scene in red ochre, featuring three hunters on the left, two of whom raise their bow in the left hand, while another has placed his bow in front of him. They are waiting, while on the right, a large antelope flees from them. From the snout to the rear arm of the last figure: 0.80 m.

419 - Jabbaren (Tassili-n'Ajjer) - The "Black Archer." Painting in ochre that leaves no doubt about the hunter's ethnic background. He wears a curious hairstyle and probably a loincloth, while drawing his bow forward. From the left end of the bow to the end of the left hand: 0.20 m.

420 - Jabbaren (Tassili-n'Ajjer). - Pastoral scene painted in red and white ochre. The figures in the center have a very tall hairstyle. They may be women. The gestures are elegant and well-observed. The person in the center is 0.21 m in height.

421 - Jabbaren (Tassili-n'Ajjer). - Another bucolic scene. Some heads resemble those of "praying mantises." Painting in red and white ochre. Width of the depicted panel: 0.77 m.

422 - Jabbaren (Tassili-n'Ajjer). - A figure painted in white with a dark loincloth. It is accompanied by a small ungulate. In its hands, it holds what may be a “sickle” made of flint shards inserted into a mammal rib. It wears (?) some sort of headdress, and in front of it is an antelope. From the tail of the small antelope to the man's forehead: 0.27 m.

423 - Jabbaren (Tassili-n'Ajjer). - The right part of the fresco, damaged by erosion, is unreadable. However, on the left, beneath the black figures we just saw, there is a procession of other people whose visible breasts allow us to affirm that six of them are women, and there are no taboos in this regard. Height of the depicted panel: 0.63 m.

424 - Jabbaren (Tassili-n'Ajjer). - A large animal painted in dark red ochre. The lack of frontal horns suggests it might be an anteater (?). The thickness of the legs is striking. From the base of the tail to the snout: 0.67 m.

425 - Jabbaren (Tassili-n'Ajjer). - "Hell." It is strange to encounter horned little devils who are, according to their creators, neither men nor beasts. Their origin is the same fantasy that populated the hells of the Middle East and other places with demonic beings. In any case, this testimony serves as a marker for the evocation of evil. Height of the little devil on the center-left: 0.17 m.

426 - Jabbaren (Tassili-n'Ajjer). - Figures with "round" heads, like those from Tan-Zoumaïtak. They are painted white and hold a bow in the right hand, a stick (?) in the left hand. The central figure wears a belt with an appendage.

427 - Jabbaren (Tassili-n'Ajjer). - Drawing based on a photo by Maximilien Bruggmann of two very beautiful oxen with precise anatomy. The horns are typical and emphasize their racial characteristics. The perspective is well studied. From the right snout to the left tail: 0.57 m in length.

427 - Jabbaren (Tassili-n'Ajjer). - (original photo) Drawing based on a photo by Maximilien Bruggmann of two very beautiful oxen with precise anatomy. The horns are typical and emphasize their racial characteristics. The perspective is well studied. From the right snout to the left tail: 0.57 m in length.

428 - Jabbaren (Tassili-n'Ajjer). - A walking goat. The exact contour is painted in dark red ochre, and the udder is clearly indicated. At the bottom right, there is a small, undifferentiated figure. Height of the goat: 0.30 m.

429 - Jabbaren (Tassili-n'Ajjer). – The "Jabbaren cow," easily identifiable by its udder and morphology. The poor perspective shows a single horn projected too far forward. It is also possible the artist intended to depict an animal with just one horn. The line across the belly is not from the time of the painting. Perhaps the necklace also doesn’t belong to the same era. The body of the animal, outlined with a fine red ochre line, is particularly beautiful. From the front horn to the end of the tail: 0.32 m.

430 - Jabbaren (Tassili-n'Ajjer). - This hunter (or "archer") wears a loincloth that retains the skin of the animal's legs and tail from which it originates. The man holds a bow in his left hand. Painted in red ochre. Height of the figure: 0.21 m.

431 - Jabbaren (Tassili-n'Ajjer). – In the large shelter of Jabbaren, one can admire this reproduction, whose grace, long neck, and the delicacy of the large legs surely belong to an antelope. The head and neck are very well observed (detail of the next photo).

432 - Jabbaren (Tassili-n'Ajjer). – A painted fresco showing, in red ochre, a group of bovines, antelopes, and figures. It is possible that the artist wanted to represent not large antelopes, but horses.

433 - Jabbaren (Tassili-n'Ajjer). – We are back in Tadrart Acacous, where we saw the first figures wearing a kind of cape on their backs. This red and white painting from Jabbaren clearly shows the garment, which seems to be held by a belt over the white tunic. The heads of the two men appear adorned with feathers. Height 0,15 m

434 - Jabbaren (the large shelter, Tassili-n'Ajjer). – Four costumed figures clearly show the territorial expansion of the ethnic group already encountered in Acacous. In their right hands, they hold indefinable objects. White paint dominates, and red ochre highlights precise details. At the bottom left, a well-rendered bovine is painted.

435 - Jabbaren (Tassili-n'Ajjer). – Bovines moving to the right. A beautiful polychrome painting emphasizing anatomical precision, which gives the viewer the feeling of actually witnessing a pastoral scene. At the top left, a "crescent-shaped structure" is seen, already noted elsewhere: refer to photo 403 from the Jabbaren site.

436 - Jabbaren (Tassili-n'Ajjer). – On the edge of a reg, a shelter whose background is formed by the edge of a soft rock attacked by water and wind erosion. It is the rock portions that form a ceiling at head height that have preserved the most rock paintings.

437 - Jabbaren (Tassili-n'Ajjer). – A very fine document showing well the use of the walls of a rock shelter. Its floor continues from that of the neighboring shelter. The large herd of bovines is characteristic of the beautiful polychrome paintings of the pastoral period and shows the homogeneity of a bovine species with multiple coat colors. Width of the depicted slab: 1.20 m.

438 - Jabbaren (Tassili-n'Ajjer). - Mural of bovines from the pastoral period, painted with red ochre and white paint. There is a predominance of males. It can be assumed that castration was already known at this time, but it is unclear what economic practices governed the management of these large herds. The panel depicted is 1.85 meters wide.

439 - Jabbaren (Tassili-n'Ajjer). - Detail of the previous panel. The combination of red ochre with various metal oxides allowed the creation of black-brown, green, blue, and yellow hues.

440 - Jabbaren (Tassili-n'Ajjer). - Negative handprints. We have already seen similar messages at the introduction. They are moving because they represent the mark of a human who left them on the rock while making a wish. Was it fulfilled?

441 - Jabbaren (Tassili-n'Ajjer). - This excellent photo, taken by the competent and sharp eye of Maximilien Bruggmann, shows us where the people whose masterpieces we are detailing lived. Of course, one must also add the life provided by water: humans, as well as animals and plants. This is how Jabbaren was at the time.

442 - Ouan Bender (Tassili-n'Ajjer). - We return here to the realm of the "round heads" and a strong preference for the color white. The position is typical but not that of a worshiper. The posterior appendage might refer to a loincloth, though not specified. The fingers of the hands and the feet are well depicted. Height: 0.82 m. Note that working in Ouan Bender, strictly prohibited for tourists, requires special authorization from the director of the "Tassili National Park", authorization which Maximilien Bruggmann had.

443 - Ouan Bender (Tassili-n'Ajjer). - A figure with a "round head," drawn in black paint, partially erased. The figure holds a stick in its right hand. The left arm is firmly extended to the right. The feet are no longer visible. Height of the figure: 0.70 m.

444 - Ouan Bender (Tassili-n'Ajjer). - Group of figures painted in white and outlined in black. Their activities are no longer identifiable. Central figure: 0.70 m in height.

445 - Ouan Bender (Tassili-n'Ajjer). - Very beautiful ox with widely spread horns, painted in a burgundy color. It measures 0.35 meters in length, from the front ear to the base of the tail.

446 - Ouan Bender (Tassili-n'Ajjer). - This photo and the following ones, up to 451, belong to the same shelter. Here we see a large mural that continues on the opposite page (photo 448). Several figures are depicted amidst scattered cattle. The small bovine located at the top, slightly to the right of the center, is the same one shown in the photo above (445). The panel is 2.85 m wide.

447 - Ouan Bender (Tassili-n'Ajjer). - Very interesting domestic scene, possibly involving barter. As far as can be judged, the features of the two individuals appear Europoid. Height of the depicted panel: 0.34 m.

448 - Ouan Bender (Tassili-n'Ajjer). - Continuation of photo 446, which connects on its left side. At the top of this document, slightly left behind the bovine, there is a curious zoomorphic figure that, according to Y. Tschudi, represents two gazelles. Giraffes, goats, cattle, and human figures are visible. Width of the depicted panel: 3.36 m.

449 - Ouan Bender (Tassili-n'Ajjer). - A symbolic figure painted with bold strokes. Perhaps an elephant whose legs are overloading a fore bovid. In this curious figure, two back ends of undetermined animals are also visible, touching at the median section of the belly. Height of the figure: 0.48 m.

450 - Ouan Bender (Tassili-n'Ajjer). - The animal (?) from the previous photo, as seen by Y. Tschudi. (Tschudi Y. - North African Rock Paintings. Sansoni Ed., Florence, 1955).

451 - Ouan Bender (Tassili-n'Ajjer). - A complex scene. It is not possible to "classify" the depictions. A figure with a "round head" forms the main part of the painting. It is overlain on the left by a gazelle and on the right by a figure presumably following this gazelle. The figure measures 0.34 m from feet to head.

452 - Ouan Bender (Tassili-n'Ajjer). - In the center, two large antelopes painted in ochre are visible.

453 - Ouan Bender (Tassili-n'Ajjer). - A large white-painted mouflon, resembling the same animals associated with "round heads." A beautiful polychrome ensemble of bovines, antelopes, goats, and humans... From one mouflon horn to the other: 0.53 m.

454 - Ouan Bender (Tassili-n'Ajjer). - A very beautiful depiction of cows painted in dark ochre brown. Panel height: 0.87 m.

455 - Ouan Bender (Tassili-n'Ajjer). – A splendid painted document that gives the exact vision of the shepherds responsible for the herds. The horns are exactly those still seen today in some regions of East Africa. Such a work deserves to be listed in the world heritage inventory. One must be grateful to the Algerian authorities for having restricted access to it. The polychrome tones enhance the high quality of the drawing. Panel represented: 0.82 m in width.

456 - Ouan Bendr (Tassili-n'Ajjer). – A decadent work depicting hoofed animals that are difficult to identify. Although painted, this fresco lacks the accuracy and freshness of the previous ones. Width of the panel represented: 0.87 m.

457 - Ouan Bender (Tassili-n'Ajjer). – Negroid figures painted in red ochre, in the same style as the animals in photo 456.

458 - Ouan Bender (Tassili-n'Ajjer). – Certainly, this "dromedary" is amusing, but it is only a dromedary due to the comic nature of its appearance: the art reflects the decadence of the climate. From the front foot to the muzzle: 0.17 m.

459 - Ouan Bender (Tassili-n'Ajjer). – This dromedary with a fishbone-shaped tail is harnessed logically, unlike the "frame," in which a figure without legs is seated, but has a leather cushion in front of it. The "frame" measures 0.16 m in height and 0.23 m in width.

460 - Ozeneare (Tassili-n'Ajjer). – Rhinoceros treated with dark ochre. The animal is shown at a gallop. The horns are painted white. The small tail is typical of the animal. From the tip of the horn to the rear foot: 0.49 m.

461 - Ozeneare (Tassili-n'Ajjer). – Warrior or hunter galloping to the left. The hairstyle is painted white. Arrows can be seen, and he holds a bow in his hand. Width of the panel: 0.21 m.

462 - Ozeneare (Tassili-n'Ajjer). – Character with a Negroid morphology, the speed pulling the loincloth backward. The head is white. Width of the depicted panel: 0.41 m.

463 - Ozeneare (Tassili-n'Ajjer). – This beautiful pastoral scene is painted in ochre and with multiple colors, giving it an astonishing impression of life. The individuals are Negroid. The bovines are in a static position, but the characters are captured in their daily activities. At the top, two people are lying down. Another person is seated, one arm back, hand on the ground. There is a child (?) at the height of a woman's (?) legs who is lying down. Further to the right, someone is lying down. The character at the bottom center is 0.27 m high.

464 - Ozeneare (Tassili-n'Ajjer). – Two shepherds, including a Negroid woman on the right. She has a white hairstyle and a white loincloth. Her breasts are visible. She holds a basket in her right hand and an indeterminate object in her left. The character on the left is less defined. Between the two, there is an indeterminate circular structure. The woman is 0.16 m tall. Red ochre and white painting.

465 - Ozeneare (Tassili-n'Ajjer). – Drawing of an ox made from a photo by Maximilien Bruggmann.

466 - Ozeneare (Tassili-n'Ajjer). – Large, two-colored cow with white horns. It is depicted on a shelter wall. From the rear hoof to the front horn alignment: 0.21 m.

467 - Ozeneare (Tassili-n'Ajjer). – Negroid character with white hairstyle, holding an indeterminate object in the left hand. Three curved lines extend from the lower abdomen with no plausible explanation. The figure is 0.14 m tall.

468 - Ozeneare (Tassili-n'Ajjer). - Large painted cow. Behind it, a character appearing obese. In fact, obesity, like pregnant women, is almost never depicted. Panel depicted: 0.57 m in width.

469 - Ozeneare (Tassili-n'Ajjer). - The multiplicity of frescoes of bovines, in which males seem to dominate, raises many questions. The first concerns the significance of the vegetation cover, which itself suggests a humid episode capable of sustaining sufficient pasture. Then, one wonders how this herd contributed to the local economy. The Maasai or Fulani today do not act like Norman farmers. Finally, such a herd requires veterinary knowledge, if only to castrate the bulls.

470 - Ozeneare (Tassili-n'Ajjer). - Three cows with polychrome coats. One has a green and white coat. The green is probably obtained by mixing yellow ochre and manganese blue. Width of the depicted panel: 0.57 m.

471 - Ozeneare (Tassili-n'Ajjer). - A figure with a "round head," which, as a reminder, refers to Tin-Tazarift. Painted here in dark ochre, it wears a short tunic. Above, a finely painted ox in red ochre.

472 - Ozeneare (Tassili-n'Ajjer). - Enlargement of the ox shown in photo 471. It measures 0.28 m from muzzle to tail. One can admire the fineness and accuracy of the painted line.

473 - Ozeneare (Tassili-n'Ajjer). - In a "rock medallion," a figure with a striped head holds a staff with an outstretched arm. Width of the depicted panel: 0.30 m.

474 - Ozeneare (Tassili-n'Ajjer). - In the center of the ceiling of a shelter, a circle painted in red ochre. The diameter is 0.08 m. From this circle, which contains a smaller one, small appendages with double lines extend. They are small in size, except for one that is extended and fades into the wall. There is no explanation for this.

475 - Ozeneare (Tassili-n'Ajjer). - Small frieze of more or less finished bovines. The top beast on the left measures 0.15 m from muzzle to tail.

476 - Ozeneare (Tassili-n'Ajjer). – Five figures depicted in dark ochre, their loincloths are white, and their heads are dolichocephalic. The musculature of their thighs is emphasized and suggests walkers. They are also shown in this posture. The width of the depicted scene: 0.33 m.

477 - Ozeneare (Tassili-n'Ajjer). – Isolated stone block. It appears that a set of lines and polishing cupules, intended to make polished stone objects, conceal a deeply engraved head of a bovine. The stone depicted is 1.20 m wide.

The site where the isolated stone block from Ozeneare was found.

478 - Ozeneare (Tassili-n'Ajjer). – In places where humans lived during the Neolithic period, they had to perform various grinding tasks: seeds, pigments, medicinal plants, etc. Therefore, rounded depressions are often found, replacing portable mills where the rock allows. This is the case on the floor of the habitation shown in the photo.

479 - Séfar (Tassili-n'Ajjer). – The "Martian" remains mysterious, as it evokes a ritual whose meaning eludes us. This male figure – the sex is emphasized – has a body that is too long. The hands, with five fingers, are in the so-called orant position, but the nature of the protuberances on the arms and the shape of the head remain unexplained. He wears two bracelets represented by three lines on each arm. On the left, a small figure seems to be invoking him. Perhaps it is wearing a belt? The structure with vertical lines has no known meaning. Mysterious horned animals make the scene even more difficult to interpret. The scene, painted in white with red outlines, is at least mysterious and possibly magical. The arms of the orant measure 1.55 m from hand to hand.

480 - Séfar (Tassili-n'Ajjer). – Location of the "Martian" in the fresco from Séfar. The width of the panel depicted here: 8 m.

The shelter with the ‘Martian’ from Séfar.

481 - Séfar (Tassili-n'Ajjer). – The animal, also painted in white, has been deformed to make it appear mysterious. The panel depicted is 1.55 m wide.

482 - Séfar (Tassili-n'Ajjer). - Strange figures. The person on the right has a face resembling a pachyderm, though the trunk ends in a fork. He wears a belt with a long tail and holds a basket (?). Behind him, an individual with a belt threatens him with a club held high in the right hand. The basket held by the person on the right is 0.28 m wide. The animal on the left may be a goat-like creature (?).

483 - Séfar (Tassili-n'Ajjer). - This scene shocked many people, but it must be seen in the mysterious context of the “shelter-temple” that eludes our understanding. In fact, the interpretation is very difficult and, lacking a “key,” it boils down to assumptions tainted by our rationalism. The first figure, on the right, is seen in profile. It has only one leg, a horned head, and an oversized arm (?). Should we believe the protrusion from its belly is a penis? Or is it merely the continuation of the arm of the individual following it? This entire three-figure scene is mysterious and probably mythical. Time of the “round heads,” white painting bordered with red. Width of the depicted panel: 0.40 m.

484 - Séfar (Tassili-n'Ajjer). - “Tarzan”! Here we remain in the mythical, without knowing what the creators of these white paintings intended to tell us. The large figure on the right has powerful arms. To his left, a woman identified by her breasts raises her arms in the air. The individual preceding her holds a striped structure. Other paintings are even less identifiable. Chest width of the “gorilla”: 0.29 m.

485 - Séfar (Tassili-n'Ajjer). - Red ochre painting with white outlines. Time of the “round heads.” Perhaps we are witnessing an intimate scene depicting a couple and their child. This is a valid hypothesis. The figure on the right wears striped pants. Note the lack of muscle mass in the thighs, in contrast to the black bovid archers.

486 - Séfar (Tassili-n'Ajjer). - Red ochre painting. Time of the “round heads.” The figure on the left, in red ochre, shows a marked but not ithyphallic penis in the precise sense of the word. The individuals around him seem to be dancing. They wear a belt extended by an appendage on their backs. The patterns on the chest of those on the right suggest a garment.

487 - Séfar (Tassili-n'Ajjer). - Time of the “round heads,” red painting with fine lines. The central figure seems to be standing between the legs of an animal, with the figure on the right also holding the leg of another animal. The central figure’s sex is indicated, while the figure on the left touches the animal’s right leg, at the same level as the central figure.

488 - Séfar (Tassili-n'Ajjer). - Is it a Bubale (Pelaravis antiquus Duv.), as the horns suggest? This white painting surrounded by red is typical of the animals depicted at Séfar. From muzzle to tail: 2.70 m long.

489 - Séfar (Tassili-n'Ajjer). - Elephant with brown outlines and painted in white. It is typical of the Séfar style. From the tip of the tail to the trunk: 1.05 m.

490 - Séfar (Tassili-n'Ajjer). - Headless figure with oversized limbs. From the left arm, an inexplicable striped structure extends. From elbow to elbow: 0.40 m.

491 - Séfar (Tassili-n'Ajjer). - This large panel is actually 3.50 m wide and is entirely covered with overlapping or stacked paintings. Therefore, it is difficult to interpret. The overall design seems to belong to the "round head" period. On the left side and at the top, several circular objects are visible, extended downward by straps (?). At the top, two small rectangular protrusions are present. These might be shields. A figure holds a tilted spear. To its left, curious beings have round heads adorned with small patterns unrelated to anatomy. In the middle, a procession of small animals is heading right. Numerous human figures, of different sizes and mostly painted in white, are still identifiable.

492 - Séfar (Tassili-n'Ajjer). - Enlarged detail of the previous fresco. Note, at the bottom center, the figure with the Mickey Mouse head.

493 - Séfar (Tassili-n'Ajjer). - The figure painted in white with a dark outline bears some resemblance to the "Martian" already seen at Séfar (photo 479). But here, it holds a spear (?) in its right hand and something indistinct in its left hand. A crescent is also depicted to its right. The body is very slender, and the thighs seem spread apart, but the legs do not continue. Chest width: 0.44 m.

494 - Séfar (Tassili-n'Ajjer). - On the left, a white-painted circle with a diameter of 0.32 m. Numerous animals and figures in the "round head" style. Everything is executed in white paint.

495 - Séfar (Tassili-n'Ajjer). - From the same period, an entanglement of animals, figures, and symbols.

496 - Séfar (Tassili-n'Ajjer). - Thick figure with too small arms. The body is indicated by clumsy strokes of paint. The head is no longer visible. In front of it, one can make out a figure painted in white.

497 - Séfar (Tassili-n'Ajjer). - Finely outlined figure in dark ochre. Here, the loincloth is clearly visible, with a front and a back part. The same should apply to all representations where it is incomplete. In front of the figure, an oval shape is visible, with no plausible explanation. A large number of very small figures raises the question of the relationship that might exist between large and small beings?

498 - Séfar (Tassili-n'Ajjer). - Extraordinary fresco painted over several periods. At the bottom, there is a parade of white mouflons mixed with figures painted in dark ochre. Bottom left, a familiar scene with figures painted in white. At the top, another scene, this time involving black shepherds fighting with their bows. On the left, behind a man with a clearly visible loincloth, one might infer a dead man.

499 - Séfar (Tassili-n'Ajjer). - This photograph is a very fine document and at the same time highlights the difficulty of analyzing its content. It all seems to belong to the "round head" phase, to which the left figure undoubtedly belongs. On the right, one can clearly distinguish a giraffe.

500 - Séfar (Tassili-n'Ajjer). - Masks have always been problematic because they were primarily associated with hunting. In fact, in many forms, they seem to be linked to fertility through what we refer to with the umbrella term "sexuality." But here, it is a true mask with no connection to the animal and likely related to rites still unidentified in rock art. The masks shown in photographs 500 - and 501 belong to a series of three, the last being incomplete. Each mask is 0.50 m wide.

501 - Séfar (Tassili-n'Ajjer). - This mask is of the same inspiration as the previous one. Some authors have denied that such objects can be identified with such precision, while some African specialists see in these paintings the ancestors of all the masks on the continent.

502 - Séfar (Tassili-n'Ajjer). - Extraordinary bust of a character lavishly dressed with a kind of hat with a crest and well-dressed. The features are distinctly human. There is a fresco of similar individuals in Jabbaren. The women of this group do not wear this hairstyle.

503 - Séfar (Tassili-n'Ajjer). - Large fresco painted in red ochre, dark gray, and yellow. The bovids are not depicted in the best way possible for the artists of this period. There are also people, as well as circular structures that could represent shelters (huts?). At least sixty bovids can be counted. The panel measures 2.60 meters in width.

504 - Séfar (Tassili-n'Ajjer). - Pastoral scene painted in ochre with remarkable precision. Some of the bovids are cows. One of the animals, in the center at the top, is ridden by a couple, one of whom, located at the front, is holding an unidentified object. The stick wrapped with a strap along its entire length is placed across the horns. In the top-right corner, a greyhound with a long snout, fast runner's legs, and a narrow pelvis is sniffing the ground. The archer below holds both his bow and two arrows, which is a well-observed gesture. It is also noted that he wears a loincloth.

505 - Séfar (Tassili-n'Ajjer). - The wife of Séfar, identifiable by her breasts, has a prominent belly which could indicate pregnancy: She wears a bracelet on each arm and holds with both hands an unidentified curved object. Height of the figure: 0.95 meters.

506 - Séfar (Tassili-n'Ajjer). - Typical pastoral scene, interesting because of the depictions of rectangular structures, which might be huts (?). These paintings, made 2.80 meters above the ground, belong to a long list of “reportages” that gradually give us a deeper understanding of pastoral life.

507 - Séfar (Tassili-n'Ajjer). - Oxen and cows. The two animals in the center are shown with only one horn visible. The ox on the right has a collar. Everything is painted in brown ochre. A seated man is depicted with a hairstyle. The distance from the back of the bovids on the left to the arm of the seated man on the right is 0.80 meters.

508 - Séfar (Tassili-n'Ajjer). - Painted giraffes, their coat represented by dotted spots. The large giraffe measures 0.31 meters in height.

509 - Séfar (Tassili-n'Ajjer). - Pastoral scene. Polychrome painting. Behind the last cow, in the top-left corner, an individual leans and extends a stick toward the bovine. Height of this figure: 0.11 meters.

510 - Séfar (Tassili-n'Ajjer). - Antelope painted in fine and precise lines with red ochre.

511 - Séfar (Tassili-n'Ajjer). - Pastoral scene. Figures engaged in their tasks amidst a herd of cows with very varied coats. Above, crouching figures and an unidentifiable structure. Below, another figure with moving arms. The animal above him measures 0.17 m in length, from the forehead to the back leg.

512 - Séfar (Tassili-n'Ajjer). - Gazelles (?). It seems that the one at the top, in the center, has a young one with her. Two-colored painting in white and dark ochre. Height of the left animal: 0.12 m.

513 - Séfar (Tassili-n'Ajjer). - A couple painted in red ochre, consisting of an archer who may be in the act of picking one of the arrows (left side), and a woman following him, with both hands stretched downward; the fingers are painted with precision. A piece of the woman’s clothing is blown by the wind to her back. Definitely a Negroid type, as revealed by several skeletons found in the region. The woman measures 0.19 m.

514 - Séfar (Tassili-n'Ajjer). - Hunting scene (?). Six Negroid archers are running to the left. A seventh is running in the opposite direction. One of them, at the top center, is armed only with an axe, while another, very faint, below him, shows that the bowstring was not attached at the ends of the bow but a little higher, to better withstand the tension. Height of the archer on the left: 0.18 m.

515 - Séfar (Tassili-n'Ajjer). - A Negroid archetype, with powerful musculature and a determined look, treated in dark red ochre. He wears a feather on his head and no visible clothing. He appears to be holding arrows in his right hand. Height of the figure: 0.21 m.

516 - Séfar (Tassili-n'Ajjer). - Pastoral scene painted in red ochre. True imagery from daily life, these small panels show a multitude of details from everyday life. Below, a figure bent over faces another kneeling. They are engaged in a mysterious activity that must have been part of their daily life. The figure on the right measures 0.18 m.

517 - Séfar (Tassili-n'Ajjer). - The man with the axe, treated in red ochre, gives us insight into one of the confirmed uses of stone axes found in the Sahara. From feet to axe: 0.18 m.

518 - Séfar (Tassili-n'Ajjer). – "The Conversation". Painting in red ochre. The woman sitting on the left, with her knees folded under her, faces a seated figure, whose right leg is stretched out, and the left is folded beneath. An extraordinary intimate character to the scene. The woman on the left is 0.14 m tall.

519 - Séfar (Tassili-n'Ajjer). – Pastoral scene painted in red ochre and white paint. Two groups of seated individuals are talking in pairs. On the right, an oval white structure may represent a dwelling. Below, a procession of cattle. The figure on the extreme left is 0.19 m tall.

520 - Séfar (Tassili-n'Ajjer). – Painting in ochre. The outer feet of the two figures on the right and left: 0.68 m wide.

521 - Séfar (Tassili-n'Ajjer). – Pastoral scene. At the bottom left, an animal that is difficult to identify. It might be a sow with a piglet. Several standing or sitting figures. A large ox on the right. The "sow" is 0.24 m long.

522 - Séfar (Tassili-n'Ajjer). – A "shepherd" extends something to a bovine facing him. This red ochre painting is less carefully executed than usual (legs of the right cow). From the horns to the hind legs: 0.22 m.

523 - Séfar (Tassili-n'Ajjer). – A Negro man, painted in red ochre, extends his right hand towards a sort of cube. Height of the man: 0.25 m.

524 - Séfar (Tassili-n'Ajjer). – Return to the time of the "round heads" with these stylized but refined paintings. A woman in the background watches the dance of two others, leaning to the right and wearing a loincloth. The one on the right wears curious white shin guards, flared at the bottom, two pieces of fabric tied to her arms, and a white headdress. She measures 0.24 m from head to foot.

525 - Séfar (Tassili-n'Ajjer). – These extraordinary fashion engravings, in reality paintings, reveal much about a civilization of which we know nothing. These women (?) are dressed in blouses, trousers, and in two cases, "leggings".

526 - Séfar (Tassili-n'Ajjer). – Scene of a ritual dance. The polychrome figures: dark brown, red, white, light yellow, are richly dressed and coiffed. They appear to be holding a stick. The tallest dancer is 0.48 m tall.

527 - Séfar (Tassili-n'Ajjer). – On the edge of the Ouad Séfar, the shelter "of the Amazons" (H. Lhote).

528 - Séfar (Tassili-n'Ajjer). – Here we see goats or sheep attached "to a rope". This gives them an astonishing sense of order. Below, there is a red structure extended downward by V-shaped lines. We also see archers sketched with painted lines, as well as figures in a red structure, bovids, and later archers treated in dark gray. Diameter of the circle: 0.25 m.

529 - Séfar (Tassili-n'Ajjer). – Two hands at the end of severed arms. The left hand is finely decorated; the other is bordered by a double line. At the bottom left: head of a mouflon. Length of the right hand and arm: 0.33 m.

530 - Séfar (Tassili-n'Ajjer). – Another "positive" hand at the end of its arm. Below, a very rare depiction of a fire. Europoid figures with headgear. The arm and hand measure 0.51 m in length.

531 - Séfar (Tassili-n'Ajjer). – In front of a stylized mouflon, an archer seems to be prostrated. At the bottom left, two elephant heads. Far right, a person in a long tunic tied at the waist. From the front paw to the back paw: 0.30 m.

532 - Séfar (Tassili-n'Ajjer). – A Europoid character irreverently called "De Gaulle". Height: 0.20 m.

533 - Séfar (Tassili-n'Ajjer). – This teratological bovine consists of two front parts welded together in the middle of the belly. It is the opposite of the "monster" from In Habeter III, where two rear ends are welded together at the same point (photo 194). Length from one snout to the other: 0.35 m.

534 - Séfar (Tassili-n'Ajjer). – Curious figures painted in ochre. In the center, a horn (possibly an elephant tusk?). The figure with an oversized neck is 0.17 m high.

535 - Séfar (Tassili-n'Ajjer). - Strange painting connecting an animal's rear end to a human torso. Width of the belly: 0.09 m.

536 - Séfar (Tassili-n'Ajjer). - Line drawing of an archer whose legs are twice the height of the torso. He still holds his bow in the left hand – like most depicted archers – and a stick in the right hand. His belt supports a cloth strip covering the groin. Notable features include: arm ring, necklace, appendages under the right arm, and hair hanging down the neck. Height of the depicted figure: 0.35 m.

537 - Tan-Zoumaïtak (Tassili n'Ajjer). - The dancers in ceremonial attire appear to wear long tunics, with the fabric band at the waist possibly forming a knot. If you look at the right hand of the left dancer, it seems to rest on the left mouflon, suggesting that the dancers and the mouflons were contemporaneous. Note the structure of the headdresses and the unique decoration of the heads. The arms bear numerous rings.

538 - Tan-Zoumaïtak (Tassili-n'Ajjer). - Magnificent mouflon with typical horns finely adorned with a fine brush. From the "round heads" period, reminiscent of Séfar. On the right, a figure resembling a Medusa. Below, small bovids, one of which has a white disk. On the left, an unidentifiable animal, in the style of Séfar, with red contour and a white body. The mouflon itself is painted in dark brown. This photo, like the previous one, shows details of the beautiful panel already seen in Photo 4 in the introduction.

539 - Tan-Zoumaïtak (Tassili-n'Ajjer). - This red ochre painting shows, on the left, a small figure with abundant hair partially inserted into a circle from which strips hang. The animal on the right might be a dark brown sheep. The circle measures 0.20 m in diameter.

540 - Tan-Zoumaïtak (Tassili-n'Ajjer). - In the style of the "round-head" dancers in olive color. The one on the left extends her arms toward a baby (?). Her feet appear to touch an antelope. On the right, a figure holds a stick; above, another, larger and older. Height of this figure: 1.10 m.

541 - Tan-Zoumaïtak (Tassili-n'Ajjer). - Always the same adorned people with "round heads." This one is painted in light brown with white dots. Curious drop-shaped ornaments hang from the arms: a large one at the wrist, two small ones attached at the top of the arm. The figure on the right is painted in light brown. Height of the adorned figure: 0.72 m.

542 - Tan-Zoumaïtak (Tassili-n'Ajjer). - The splendid shelter of Tan-Zoumaïtak, to which Henri Lhote attributes 28 m². The paintings captured in the previous photographs can be recognized here. This dome-shaped shelter was worthy of inspiring religious feelings.

543 - Tan-Zoumaïtak (Tassili-n'Ajjer). - Facing the previous shelter, on rocks, there are other testimonies from the Pastoral Period. The cow on the right is remarkable for the precision of its udder. Length of this cow: 0.30 m.

544 - Tin-Aboteka (Tassili-n'Ajjer). - This typical Tassili landscape must be restored with trees, bushes, grass, water, people, and animals. Even though the water no longer erodes the rocks, sand has replaced it.

545 - Tin-Aboteka (Tassili-n'Ajjer). - On a vertical rocky platform, a pastoral scene painted in ochre, consisting solely of Negroid figures, well attested by their morphology. Height of the panel: 1.85 m.

546 - Tin-Aboteka (Tassili-n'Ajjer). - A large three-legged ox in a scene painted with dark red ochre. In fact, it seems that for some unknown reason, the right leg remains unfinished. The horns are bent back on the head. Below, a "round-headed" figure holds a bow.

Maximilien Bruggmann photographing the preceding rock painting in Tin-Aboteka (Tassili-n'Ajjer).

547 - Tin-Aboketa (Tassili-n'Ajjer). - Two Negroid figures, the one on the left holding a bow in his left hand and a spear in the other, with the triangular shaft visible. He is 1.60 m tall.

548 - Tin-Aboteka (Tassili-n'Ajjer). - Three rectangular structures, two of which show stakes (?) at each corner and contain indeterminate objects in the shape of spools. Three in the right structure, one in the two others. In all three structures, the lines forming the rectangles are doubled on the outside. Width of the right rectangle: 0.50 m.

549 - Tin-Aboteka (Tassili-n'Ajjer). - Ochre painting showing a man activating the walk of an ox heading to the right. Above, a figure and another ox are also going in the same direction. For the ox below, from the posterior right hoof to the anterior left hoof: 0.30 m.

550 - Tin-Aboteka (Tassili-n'Ajjer). - Indeterminate animal, possibly a dog. The tail is highly imaginative. A serration of the entire contour corresponds to the animal's fur, which is probably of more recent origin and whose age should be determined by the Tifinagh characters. Painted with red ochre.

551 - Tin-Aboteka (Tassili-n'Ajjer). - Negroid archers running to the right, their head profile resembling that of a dog. The figure in the center-left has a dark red circle on their head.

552 - Tin-Aboteka (Tassili-n'Ajjer). - Beautiful painted scene, with a figure seated at the top, whose head is replaced by a dash that represents only its central part (the head was surrounded by a light yellow painted hairstyle, of which only traces remain). The tunic wraps around the figure. The left hand is at the end of an arm resting on the knee. In the right hand, an undefined object is extended toward a hemispherical shape (perhaps a bag). To the left, a large standing figure. Below, a person dressed in a strip loincloth carries a basket (?) on their arm. Lower right, another unclear scene. The large figure is 0.50 m tall.

553 - Tin-Aboteka (Tassili-n'Ajjer). - Very important painted scene, showing a "flying gallop" chariot drawn by two drivers and another person. The driver at the top center holds six reins that are not aligned with the (or the) yoke. Below, in the center, another indistinct driver holds two reins. Eight reins should correspond to four horses... but only one is visible! Other individuals are also seen, along with a dog running beside the chariot. The dog measures 0.16 m in length and fits into a panel 0.83 m wide.

554 - Tin-Aboteka (Tassili-n'Ajjer). - A tall figure wearing loose clothing and a hieratic attitude. He seems to be uncovering his head (?). He is 0.45 m tall. Next to him on the right, and therefore on his left, is another figure that is difficult to identify.

555 - Tin-Aboteka (Tassili-n'Ajjer). - Horses, riders, camels, ostriches, dogs from more recent times. Width of the horse at the top right: 0.42 m.

556 - Tin-Aboteka (Tassili-n'Ajjer). - Difficult-to-define quadruped. It might be a hoofed animal. It measures 0.28 m from the left hoof to the tip of the tail.

557 - Tin-Tazarift (Tassili-n'Ajjer). - Detail of the fresco, the subject of the next photo (558), where in the center, slightly lower, a very small gazelle can be seen, whose head overlaps the reclining figure above it.

558 - Tin-Tazarift (Tassili-n'Ajjer). - Fresco depicting figures painted in brown ochre, with round heads and two small antennas. It is unclear why two of them are shown lying down. The archer, at the bottom right, holds a double-curved bow.

559 - Tin-Tazarift (Tassili-n'Ajjer). - The same enlarged archer holds an arrow in his left hand.

560 - Tin-Tazarift (Tassili-n'Ajjer). - Enlargement of the "swimmer" from photo 558.

561 - Tin-Tazarift (Tassili-n'Ajjer). - A large figure painted in dark ochre, overlaid by a white painted mouflon, followed by another coming from the left. The importance of this wild ruminant in the "round heads" animal park is surprising.

562 - Tin-Tazarift (Tassili-n'Ajjer). - The "sprinter": an excellent study made with a finely painted line that accurately depicts the running posture. Height of the figure: 0.22 m.

Tin Tazarift is located about two hours' walk northwest of Séfar in a labyrinth of sandstone streets and towers. The main shelter houses a group of large black round-headed figures with horned heads, as well as several other figures in very good condition. Algeria - Tassili n'Ajjer - 1993

563 - Tin-Tazarift (Tassili-n'Ajjer). - A figure painted in light brown ochre, seemingly seated. It belongs to the "round heads" period, wearing a loincloth and arm rings. The ovoid structure with a dark center, towards which the subject extends one arm, has no clear explanation. Height of the figure: 0.45 m.

564 - Tin-Tazarift (Tassili-n'Ajjer). - Panel containing, among other things, the figure from photo 561. In the center, a small haloed figure. To the right, partly hidden by a bovine painted in light ochre, a large figure. The discovery of four fish complements the find of fossil fish bones on the ground. To the left, two white mouflons. All painted in light or dark brown.

565 - Tin-Tazarift (Tassili-n'Ajjer). - Amazing painting of a "round head" figure showing a protuberance on the skull. Two curved appendages extend from each arm. In the left hand, the figure holds a long object with a sharp base, terminating in a small oblong mass at the top. In the right hand, it can be inferred that he holds a puzzle. A dagger is visible at the belt; in front of this "warrior", another figure, barely discernible, possibly from a different era. Below, two small paintings of negroid figures. Everything is painted in brown ochre. The large figure measures 0.86 m in height.

566 - Tin-Tazarift (Tassili-n'Ajjer). – Three gazelles whose lightness is well rendered. Bicolor painting. From the front hoof to the rear hoof: 0.22 m in length.

567 - Tin-Tazarift (Tassili-n'Ajjer). – Painted fresco depicting a figure with its hand resting on the hindquarters of a large bovine and wearing a clearly identifiable loincloth. At the bottom right, a recognizable sheep is visible. The figure is 0.20 m tall.

568 - Tin-Tazarift (Tassili-n'Ajjer). – In a shelter on the Tin-Aboteka trail, this seated woman watches a cow with lyre-shaped horns peacefully move away. Above, very difficult to read, older paintings can be seen. From the base of the tail to the nostrils, the cow is 0.33 m long.

569 - Tin-Tazarift (Tassili-n'Ajjer). – Pastoral fresco in dark red ochre. The bovines are depicted in motion, moving away to the right. Figures armed with bows accompany them. In the background, a calf is being forcefully driven. From the nostrils of the calf to the rear leg of the man: 0.10 m in length.

570 - Tin-Tazarift (Tassili-n'Ajjer). – Ochre fresco depicting preparations for a hunt or battle. In the middle left, an archer not only wears a quiver of arrows on his belt but also holds a handful of arrows in his left hand. The sense of movement in the scene is intense. The archers in the top right measure 0.11 m in height.

571 - Tin-Tazarift (Tassili-n'Ajjer). – Pastoral scene in white and ochre, from reddish-brown to light brown. Note the cap worn by both the man and the child following him, in the top right. It closely resembles the cap still worn by children during circumcision. The man is 0.24 m tall.

572 - Tin-Tazarift (Tassili-n'Ajjer). - Seven bovids, their coats ranging from white to red.

573 - Tin-Tazarift (Tassili-n'Ajjer). - Head of a bovine viewed in perspective. 0.07 m separate the ends of the two horns. This pictorial exercise is not the easiest.

574 - Tin-Tazarift (Tassili-n'Ajjer). - Bovid outlined in ochre. It is "unicorned" and wears a collar.

575 - Tin-Tazarift (Tassili-n'Ajjer). - Bovid painted in ochre but without revealing significant talent. From nose to hind leg: 0.18 m.

576 - Tin-Tazarift (Tassili-n'Ajjer). - Two hippopotamuses painted in ochre, measuring 1.16 m from the rear end of the left one to the nostril of the right one.

577 - Tin-Tazarift (Tassili-n'Ajjer). - Strange "naviform" structure. But aside from its unproven navigational ability, the archer on the right is not related to it... Only the one in the center might be a "sailor." At each end of the "structure" is an indefinable object.

578 - Tin-Terhert (Tassili-n'Ajjer). - The Tin-Terhert site presents an extraordinary surprise for the traveler, as it is a true open-air museum. The large slabs of Maâder de Dider are covered with magnificent, deep engravings made with stone chips. The large ox measures 5.10 m in length.

579 - Tin-Terhert (Tassili-n'Ajjer). - Head of a bovid from the left document. Extraordinary work composed of engraved patterns to render the animal's coat.

580 - Tin-Terhert (Tassili-n'Ajjer, Maâder de Dider). - Details of the large bovid, allowing for a judgment of the engraver's mastery.

581 - Tin-Terhert (Tassili-n'Ajjer, Maâder de Dider). - Details of the large bovid, allowing for a judgment of the engraver's mastery.

582 - Tin-Terhert (Tassili-n'Ajjer, Maâder de Dider). - Details of the large bovid, allowing for a judgment of the engraver's mastery.

583 - Tin-Terhert (Tassili-n'Ajjer). - The depicted panel is 1 meter high and shows a group of figures with polished heads, exhibiting features that might represent clothing at various body levels. The man at the bottom right has a "tail" and three lines dividing the body. Above him is an indeterminate ungulate, which is in turn dominated by a figure with its head upside down.

584 - Tin-Terhert (Tassili-n'Ajjer). - This very beautiful engraving from the bovid era shows a reclining antelope sleeping, with its snout resting on the right front leg. When considering the tools available to the artist, one can say that, artistically, we have not invented anything new. Overall width: 0.47 m.

585 - Tin-Terhert (Tassili-n'Ajjer). - Lightly engraved spirals, arranged in three successive coils.

586 - Tin-Terhert (Tassili-n'Ajjer). - Engraved ungulate, indeterminate due to the unclear depiction of the head. From the snout to the tail tip: 0.61 m.

587 - Tin-Terhert (Tassili-n'Ajjer). - A life-sized engraved rabbit from the bublian era. From the tail to the mouth: 0.40 m.

588 - Tin-Terhert (Tassili-n'Ajjer). - Three giraffes eating foliage above them, thus with their heads raised. Height of the giraffes: 0.80 m.

589 - Tin-Terhert (Tassili-n'Ajjer). - Engraved head of a giraffe. The depicted section is 0.41 m wide.

590 - Tin-Terhert (Tassili-n'Ajjer). - These engraved ostriches stand out clearly from the usual awkwardness of artists who have attempted to reproduce them. Only the attachment of the beak to the head is not well rendered. From the right foot to the left head: 0.40 m.

591 - Tin-Teferist, near Séfar (Tassili-n'Ajjer). – The three figures painted in red ochre remind us of individuals with "dash heads", but it has already been stated that this dash is only the visible part of the head, with the rest covered by light hair, with the paint in most cases having disappeared. The "lancers" facing each other are dressed in a short tunic, tight at the waist and slightly flared at the base. The one on the left wears a sort of stole hanging from both sides of the neck. With his right hand, he holds the hand of a woman in a long tunic. The central figure is 0.55 m tall.

592 - Tiffeltest, near Séfar (Tassili-n'Ajjer). – A ruminant on the right, painted in dark ochre; at the top left, a couple in red ochre that could be a man and a woman. The most interesting feature is a quadrangular structure that could represent a dwelling. The depicted panel is 0.53 m wide. The animal on the right is 0.11 m tall.

593 - Tiffeltest, near Séfar (Tassili-n'Ajjer). – This white and ochre painting brings us back to the so-called "ship-like" structures (here executed in white, showing two figures raising their arms in a hieratic posture). The fact that they are frequent along the Nile does not in any way lead to their identification with the structure depicted here or with that in Tin-Tazarift (photo 577). The maximum distance between the two tips of the structure is 0.40 m. At the top left, a mare with a foal.

594 - Tin-Kani (Tassili-n'Ajjer). – A "positive" hand missing the thumb. Above, two archers aiming to the right. Painting in ochre.

595 - Tin-Kani (Tassili-n'Ajjer). – Here we find mysterious animals painted in the Séfar style. The rendering of the shapes does not seem accidental.

596 - Tin-Kani (Tassili-n'Ajjer). – Two oxen painted in the good tradition of the bovidian era. The one on the left measures 0.17 m from the snout to the tail.

597 - Tin-Kani (Tassili-n'Ajjer). – A hunter with a bow and arrows in front of the carcass of a slain animal (?). The height of the painting is 0.16 m.

598 - Tin-Kani (Tassili-n'Ajjer). - Large horned quadruped in Sefar style. The contour is painted with ochre. From the muzzle to the tail: 0.65 m in width.

599 - Tin-Kani (Tassili-n'Ajjer). - Left hand in negative, obtained by projecting white paint onto the hand pressed onto the rock. Below, a hoofed animal in Sefar style painted in white lines. The eyes are rendered in flat perspective. The hand on the rock is life-size.

600 - Tin-Kani (Tassili-n'Ajjer). - Two animals in Sefar style, painted in white and brown ochre. The contour of the left animal is doubled by a line formed of small arrows (>>>). Below the animal on the right, there is a small bovine. On the left, two individuals. The width of the panel depicted: 3.20 m.

601 - Tin-Kani (Tassili-n'Ajjer). - Three figures from the "round heads" period in Sefar style. The one in the middle is a woman. The work was executed in white and dark brown. The figure on the left measures 0.87 m in height. Detail of photo 600.

602 - Tin-Kani (Tassili-n'Ajjer). - Ox painted in red-brown, with the coat depicted by tightly spaced curved lines. Opposite, two deers are treated in white. To the right, a man in red-brown holds a stick in his hand. The width of the panel depicted: 0.82 m.

603 - In ltinen (Tassili-n'Ajjer). - Right hand "positive." Life-size.

604 - In ltinen (Tassili-n'Ajjer). - Three white and two black figures form, with a large cow, a beautiful pastoral scene. The central figure extends a hand towards an open crescent. Facing them, the counterpart holds an object hanging from a rope. Finally, the third figure, on the left, offers a bowl.

605 - In ltinen (Tassili-n'Ajjer). - Chariot painted in dark red ochre, two horses in "flying gallop." In fact, it is the chariot that appears to be flying above the horses due to a frequent perspective error. This brings the yoke above the animals. A second axle with its wheels is located behind the chariot.

606 - In ltinen (Tassili-n'Ajjer). - Two bovines and a calf (?) painted in dark ochre. The multiplicity of bovine depictions must reflect the actual importance of the herd during the great Pastoral Period. Nevertheless, it would probably be a mistake to imagine the region where it is found as the present-day Normandy. Evidence of this can be seen in the large herds of the Peuhls today.

607 - Ihérir (in the locality of Ahréné, Tassili-n'Ajjer). – Large ox painted with patterns intended to represent the coat. A comparison should be made with the bovine engraved at Tin-Terhert (photos 578 and 579).

608 - Fadnoun (Tassili-n'Ajjer). – This photo was taken next to the painted elephant presented in the introduction (photo 5). This fresco, painted in white and red ochre, is particularly vivid. It depicts men with canine-like heads, in dynamic poses. The overall scene, completed by animals, evokes a "reportage" style.

609 - Tadras n'Ellias (Tassili-n'Ajjer). – This fresco presents the difficulty of interpreting rock art, as each occupation of the site is marked by a new layer of paintings or engravings over the previous ones. One thinks one can make out engraved bovids, a large animal painted in white, a fragment of white painting in the Séfar style, figures in dark ochre... But assigning each subject to a specific era proves difficult.

610 - Alan-Edoument (Tassili-n'Ajjer). – A "flying gallop" chariot, clumsily crafted. It raises similar reflections to the one presented by the chariot of In Itinen (photo 605), though it has only one axle. Note the absence of a platform.

611 - Alan-Edoument (Tassili-n'Ajjer). – Engraving of a large Bubalus (Pelorovis antiquus Duv.). This species is now completely extinct.

612 - Alan-Edoument (Tassili-n'Ajjer). – Engraved hippopotamus. The horn on top of the neck is a later addition. Below, there are signs of polishing.

613 - Alan-Edoument (Tassili-n'Ajjer). – Horse painted in red ochre. The mane is indicated, and the execution is awkward. From the tail to the right front leg, the animal measures 0.25 m.

614 - Alan-Edoument (Tassili-n'Ajjer). - Beautiful bovine fresco mixing herders and cattle. The large figure in the center wears a yellow loincloth. It appears to be holding its head and extending something with the left hand. The cow on the right is black, while the other animals and herders are polychrome. The panel measures 0.70 m in width.

615 - Tin-Fina on the Oued n'Tifinar (Tassili-n'Ajjer). - Pastoral scene in red ochre. A few figures painted in black are barely visible. Some are standing, others seated. Many carry staffs. It is a scene from daily life that exudes a sense of peace. The panel measures 0.76 m in width.

616 - Tin-Fina (Tassili-n'Ajjer). - Another pastoral scene, but this time an active one. On the right, five figures in dark ochre are dressed in the classic short tunic, which seems to be typical of men. Elsewhere, there are bovids and other figures. But at the bottom, there is a “camel” ridden by a man armed with a spear, which brings us into the Berber world. It is now accepted that the “dromedary” was introduced to Africa in the last millennium B.C. Therefore, the dromedary is a later addition. Width: 1.80 m.

617 - Tin-Fina (Tassili-n'Ajjer). - Three figures in short leather tunics, similar to those shown in photo 591 taken at Tin-Teferist (Séfar). The one on the right, besides the spear (only the lower part of which remains), may be holding a bow in the left hand. A kind of halo seems to surround the head of the central figure.

618 - Oum Itouami (Tassili-n'Ajjer). - It has been said that the spiral is linked to a symbolism of water, and thus fertility. However, in this case, it seems that it was used primarily for aesthetic purposes. Width of the depiction: 0.77 m.

619 - Oum Itouami (Tassili-n'Ajjer). - It seems the artist wanted to depict a hunting scene. A mouflon (?) is being attacked by three dogs. It has two arrows or two spears stuck in its body, and a spearman, who also carries a sword at waist level, is about to throw his weapon. The spearman is 0.14 m in height. Painting in red ochre.

620 - Oum Itouami (Tassili-n'Ajjer). - On the left, a man with a “dash-shaped head” holds a long stick or spear. He wears a short tunic, tightly fitting at the waist, typical of his race. In front of him, another man with lighter skin appears to be wearing a garment made of animal skin. He is running towards three oxen, which are notably rendered in brown ochre. The left figure is 0.22 m tall.

621 - Tin-Messeous (Tassili-n'Ajjer). - Pastoral scene painted in brown ochre. Still the “dash-shaped heads”. Thanks to them, their costumes, their stances, and their armament, we could now write the story of their group, knowing that they themselves depicted themselves. This also applies to the “round heads,” which are well individualized and associated with beliefs that elude us. Thus, rock art represents an important part of prehistory and protohistory. Therefore, it is crucial to link the material remains to the engraved or painted works of art. Width of the depiction: 0.94 m.

622 - Tin-Messeous (Tassili-n'Ajjer). - A figure with a "dash head", whose tunic appears to be supported by straps, turning the garment into a skirt. Ochre-colored figurative painting: 0.28 m.

623 - Tin-Messeous (Tassili-n'Ajjer). - These decadent giraffes painted in red ochre can be dated through the Tifinagh characters. Width of the depicted panel: 2.20 m.

624 - Col du Tafilalet (Tassili-n'Ajjer). - Third Aqba (Aqba: ascent) towards Tamrit. A slender woman, painted in red ochre, with darker arms. A part of her cloth hangs between her legs. She is in the special starting position for a "sprint". Her measurements from hands to feet: 0.60 m.

625 - Tamrit (Shelter, Tassili-n'Ajjer). - Three antelopes painted in ochre and white, one of which is facing the opposite direction. Height of horns to front hooves: 0.37 m.

626 - Region of Djanet (Tassili-n'Ajjer). - A giraffe painted in brown ochre, in a very decadent style. In the process of aridification, giraffes and ostriches survive the longest.

627 - Region of Djanet (Tassili-n'Ajjer). - The "devil": An ithyphallic figure ejaculating. As explained in the chapter on sexuality, this ancient engraving should be examined within the context of a time when humans, threatened in their survival, invoked powers that united genitality and fertility. Therefore, any ambiguous interpretation should be avoided here.

628 - In-Debiren (Tassili-n'Ajjer). - The engraved oxen seen here make maximum use of pre-existing cupules for the nostrils and eyes. The one on the left appears overloaded in its greatest width.

629 - Terrarart (Tassili-n'Ajjer). - Four deeply engraved oxen with polished parts. Executed in the style of those from In-Debiren, using the natural relief of the rock to the fullest. The ox in the middle left is called "the crying cow" because it appears to have a tear running from its right eye. This engraving, at human height, is located on an isolated rock emerging from the sand in the Wadi Edjiriou. It is said that when the wadi flows, the "crying cow" dips its snout into the water. Dimension of the head, from forehead to nostrils: 0.60 m.

630 - Amguid (Tassili-n'Ajjer). - Scene of a "butchery" painted in red ochre. A beast is on its back, with a kneeling figure behind it, extending its arms forward. In front, two figures can be seen in positions that are difficult to describe. Such scenes are very rare.

631 - Oued Mertoutek (Hoggar). - At the top, two pairs of figures with "dash-shaped heads." The central one is sometimes called "the guitarist," though this, of course, is unverified. This painting, in brown ochre and white, also shows animals rendered entirely in white. Below, there are two groups of two individuals and one isolated figure. At the very bottom, a little devil (?) in red ochre (Photo: Jörg Eberl).

632 - Yeï Loulou Yoga (Niger). - Engraving through complete pecking. On the left, a Sudanese Sloughi. In the center, a traditionally dressed Tuareg with spear, shield, and a cord hanging between the legs. On the right, an armed, mounted dromedary. Note the head ornaments of the animal.

633 - Yeï Loulou Yoga (Niger). - Engraved elephant. 1.20 m in height.

Chapter 7: TIBESTI – Chad

The Tibesti is a volcanic mountain range in Chad and is also the highest mountain range in the Sahara. Its northern foothills extend several hundred kilometres into the territory of Libya. It rises on the northern edge of the Chad Basin and emerges from the flat desert landscape with several strata. The high mountains are very rugged in places and feature numerous volcanic craters and cinder cones. The Tibesti is one of the most isolated regions on earth and is populated by the Tubu. The regional administrative centre is the town of Bardaï with around 1500 inhabitants. Here we can see an old lava field with the Oudingueur volcano in the background.

Prehistoric rock art is known from various places in the form of engravings and paintings. Large engravings of wild animals date from the earliest phase, from around 8000 BC. The most important regional site for this is Enneri Gonoa. The so-called ‘Man of Gonoa’ is one of the best-known motifs of the Eastern Sahara. Polychrome paintings increasingly appear in the later phases. Initially, they mainly depict cattle, later camels and armed warriors.

634 - Oudingueur (Tibesti). - We enter Chad, where a vast volcanic massif occupies much of the northern part. The engraved bull seen here leads a large series of works created either by pecking or by lines of varying depth. There seem to be no large painting sites. The rear measures 0.19 m in height.

635 - Bardaï (Tibesti). - Engraved herd of bovids.

636 - Bardaï (Tibesti). - Very schematic but clearly identifiable cheetah, drawn by Maximilien Bruggmann from his photograph.

636 - Bardaï (Tibesti). - (original photo) Very schematic but clearly identifiable cheetah, drawn by Maximilien Bruggmann from his photograph.

637 - Bardaï (Tibesti). - Drawing by Maximilien Bruggmann representing six figures from a fresco that contains eighteen in total, spanning 1.55 m in length. Each figure measures about 0.20 m in height. It may depict a dance scene. Each individual wears a feather, sometimes two, on their head. It is unclear if they are dressed, as their visible genitalia suggest otherwise. However, it is likely not ithyphallicism.

637 - Bardaï (Tibesti). - (original photo) Drawing by Maximilien Bruggmann representing six figures from a fresco that contains eighteen in total, spanning 1.55 m in length. Each figure measures about 0.20 m in height. It may depict a dance scene. Each individual wears a feather, sometimes two, on their head. It is unclear if they are dressed, as their visible genitalia suggest otherwise. However, it is likely not ithyphallicism.

638 - Bardai (Tibesti). - Pastoral scene combining figures and bovids. Each individual is equipped with some sort of sickle. The curvature does not suggest that it is a "boomerang."

639 - Bardaï (Tibesti). - The same scene as the previous one, and in the same style. An unexplained semicircular form is added. From the tail of the central cow to the farthest tip of the horn: 0.68 m.

640 - Bardaï (Tibesti). - Two very curious, elongated figures showing a sex in the shape of a "winding mechanism." The profile is sketched. The postures are accurate. The lines were previously dotted. The man on the right seems to be preparing to throw a spear. He is 0.83 m tall.

641 - Bardaï (Tibesti). - A large bovine rendered through rough but regular dotting. The horns are exaggerated, and the posture is somewhat schematic.

642 - Bardaï (Tibesti). - A cow with overloaded horns. The added horns are asymmetrical, which is also found in nature. From the top of the left horn to the front hoof: 0.63 m.

643 - Enneri Bardagué (Tibesti). - Three ostriches dotted and schematized. The one on the left is 0.42 m in height.

644 - Enneri Bardagué (Tibesti). - Kudu (antelope) depicted with dotting.

645 - Enneri Bessama (Tibesti). - Two schematic bovines with exaggerated horns.

646 - Enneri Bessama (Tibesti). - A large bull, dotted with lyre-shaped horns. From the nose to the tip of the tail: 0.57 m.

647 - Enneri Direnao (Tibesti). - The "Lancer." Coarse dotting that still conveys the figure's stance, with three feathers (?) on the head, a short tunic, and a belt. From the top of the central feather to the feet: 0.49 m.

648 - Enneri Direnao (24 km from Bardaï, Tibesti). - Lancer, drawn from a photo by Maximilien Bruggmann. Note the disproportion of the spear, whose iron is larger than the man's body. The spear measures 0.50 m.

648 - Enneri Direnao (24 km from Bardaï, Tibesti). - (original photo) Lancer, drawn from a photo by Maximilien Bruggmann. Note the disproportion of the spear, whose iron is larger than the man's body. The spear measures 0.50 m.

649 - Enneri Direnao (Tibesti). - Another lancer between two bovines. His costume resembles that of the Swiss Guard! The spear is oversized, and his abdomen is reduced to a line. He has not only three feathers on his head but also "appendages" hanging from his ears. From the top of the central feather to the feet: 0.27 m.

650 - Gonoa (Tibesti). - The engraving begins to show the damage from amateur photographers who do not hesitate to rub, wet, or coat it with various products, without concern for preserving this rare artwork. It depicts a naked man with a dog-like profile and harmonious proportions, despite the slightly elongated legs. He carries an unclear, short object on his right shoulder. It is engraved with shallow but regular lines, and the artist adhered to real anatomy for the body. The representation of the sex is direct and clear. Height of the figure: 1.87 m.

651 - Gonoa (Tibesti). - Deeply engraved elephant. The smallest one preceding it is probably not from the same period. Typical landscape of Gonoa in a field of volcanic rocks. From the front of the small elephant to the hind leg of the large one: 1.60 m.

652 - Gonoa (Tibesti). - Pastoral scene engraved by puncturing in a very decadent style. The first archer on the right is 0.41 m tall.

653 - Gonoa (Tibesti). - Elephant rendered primarily with straight lines, giving a geometric look to this engraving, which is recent in style but rare: 0.41 m tall. Only the back and trunk are slightly curved. From the base of the tail to the hind leg: 0.88 m.

654 - Gonoa (Tibesti). - Two spirals in reverse order, with the higher spiral continuing the lower one. Mediocre engraving. Diameter of one spiral: 0.15 m.

655 - Gonoa (Tibesti). - A large elephant towers over a bull with lyre-shaped horns whose belly is marked with a vertical line. Between the two, a later camel. Note that the elephant has no observable eye. The belly of the elephant, at its center, measures 0.57 m.

656 - Gonoa (Tibesti). - On a beautiful fresco of eight finely engraved giraff. Above, a punctuated bovine, later in date. Inside the bovine, there is an inexplicable structure. The very small man standing in front of the first giraffe, on the left, measures 0.14 m in height.

657 - Gonoa (Tibesti). - Punctuated and deeply engraved bull. Although clumsy, the engraver has made an effort.

658 - Gonoa (Tibesti). - Beautiful naturalistic engravings of giraffes, with artistic rendering of the animals’ fur. From the hump of the back of the giraffe on the right to its hind legs: 1.16 m.

659 - Gonoa (Tibesti). - Deeply engraved bovine. From the muzzle to the start of the tail: 0.72 m.

660 - Gonoa (Tibesti). - Giraffes engraved with long, fine lines. The insides of the legs and heads are polished. The legs of the animal on the right are oversized. A small figure and various animals are visible between the two giraffes. From the hump of the back of the largest giraffe to the level of the legs: 0.94 m.

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