Color illustration of a pepper plant (Capsicum annuum L.). This spice, native to South and Central America, is now cultivated in most tropical countries, particularly in Indonesia. In more temperate regions, such as Southern Europe, however, the cultivation of the milder vegetable variety known as bell pepper has gained greater importance. Plaque: Geneva Conservatory and Botanical Garden – 1990

The colour plate shows a historical botanical illustration of the plant Capsicum longum (a variety of Spanish pepper, now usually classified as Capsicum annuum), which belongs to the nightshade family. These plants require plenty of sun, warmth and nutrient-rich, well-drained soil. The fruits are used worldwide as a spice (hot or mild) and as a vegetable in cooking. The substance responsible for the heat is capsaicin, which is also used in medicine (e.g. in heat patches). Plaque: Geneva Conservatory and Botanical Garden – 1990

The photo shows ripe, red chili peppers (Capsicum annuum variety), which are commonly sold under the names “peperoni” or “cayenne.” These elongated peppers typically have a moderate to strong heat level. They are excellent for fresh salsas, hot sauces, stir-fry dishes, or for drying to make homemade chili powder. Red chili peppers are rich in vitamins A and C. The active ingredient capsaicin not only provides the heat but also boosts the metabolism. - 1990

A large quantity of fresh green chili peppers. These peppers are characterized by their slender, elongated shape and intense heat. - 1990

Freshly harvested chili peppers at various stages of ripeness. – 1990

Like all chili peppers worldwide, these varieties originated in Central and South America. Archaeological findings show that indigenous peoples in regions of present-day Mexico and Brazil were already using and cultivating wild varieties of this plant thousands of years ago. It wasn’t until the 15th and 16th centuries that Spanish and Portuguese sailors brought the hot peppers to Europe, Africa, and Asia, where they quickly became a staple of local cuisines. – 1990

At the market in Jodhpur, local farmers sell their own produce, including red chili peppers and eggplants. – 1990

Color chart of black pepper (Piper nigrum L.), the most important species of the genus Piper in the pepper family. The genus Piper comprises about two thousand species, only a few of which are used as spices. Plaque: Geneva Conservatory and Botanical Garden – 1990

Black peppercorns (Piper nigrum). These are the dried, unripe fruits of the pepper plant. During the sun-drying process, the outer skin shrinks and turns dark brown to black. – 1990

The fruits and leaves of the true pepper plant (Piper nigrum). Depending on the time of harvest and processing method, this tropical vine yields the familiar black, green, white, and red peppercorns. Green pepper: Harvested unripe and either pickled fresh or quickly dried. Black pepper: Also harvested green, but ferments during slow drying in the sun, causing the skin to wrinkle and turn black. - 1990

The berries have changed color from green to yellow to red and are practically ripe. Each berry contains a single peppercorn. The deep-green, lanceolate leaves are alternate, and the winged stem encircles the strongly branched shoot. White pepper: Fully ripe, red berries are harvested for this. After soaking in water, the outer pulp is removed, leaving only the light-colored seed. - 1990

Pepper harvest in the Cardamom Hills near Thekkadi, a small town in the southwestern Indian state of Kerala. The slopes of these hills are sparsely covered with deciduous trees, whose trunks are enveloped by the dense foliage of the pepper bushes. Pepper is a climbing plant that—much like wild grapevines or ivy—grows upward on trees and rock faces using its tough, supple tendrils and adhesive aerial roots. To harvest the long clusters of pepper berries, the picker uses a sturdy bamboo pole—on which he has trimmed the side shoots to the width of a step—as a ladder. – 1990

Black pepper (Piper nigrum) is produced by harvesting the unripe, green berries of the pepper bush and then drying them. During the drying process, the berries ferment, shrivel, and take on their characteristic dark brown to black color. The spice’s typical, pungent flavor comes from the alkaloid piperine it contains. – 1990

Color chart of ginger (Zingiber officinale R.). This fast-growing perennial bears a certain resemblance to our common reed. Its robust rhizomes—underground stems as thick as a thumb—branch out horizontally and form root tubers with aromatic flesh. They produce two distinctly different above-ground shoots. The foliage shoots, which grow to a height of one to one and a half meters, bear lanceolate, alternate leaves up to twenty centimeters long and two centimeters wide. The flowering or inflorescence shoots, on the other hand, are only about thirty centimeters tall and covered with short, scale-like bracts. They form spike-like inflorescences, about five centimeters long, with greenish-yellow flowers. Plaque: Geneva Conservatory and Botanical Garden – 1990

This botanical illustration depicts the ginger plant (Zingiber officinale). It has upright, reed-like shoots with narrow, lance-shaped leaves. The inflorescence is a separate, leafless stalk with cone-like bracts and yellow-purple flowers. The characteristic underground ginger root is used as a spice and remedy. Detailed botanical drawings of the individual parts of the flower can also be seen at the bottom right. Plaque: Geneva Conservatory and Botanical Garden – 1990

A fresh ginger root (Zingiber officinale). Strictly speaking, this is the underground rhizome of the ginger plant. It is characterized by its knobby shape and a light brown, slightly woody skin. The juicy, yellowish interior has a pleasantly spicy, aromatic, and slightly lemony flavor. Ginger is popular as a versatile spice in soups, curries, and teas, as well as a traditional home remedy for colds and nausea. – 1990

Ginger is generally harvested during the tropical winter. To do this, farmers dig up the plants with a pitchfork, taking care not to damage the root tubers. The yield per hectare varies considerably from region to region: while it can reach up to eight tons in India, it is only about half that in Jamaica. – 1990

A large quantity of fresh, unpeeled ginger (Zingiber officinale). The roots are irregularly branched and have a light brown, slightly fibrous skin. Ginger is widely used in cooking and as a remedy due to its spicy flavor and health-promoting properties, such as essential oils and pungent compounds. – 1990

Ginger is available for sale at Pasar Beringharjo, the most famous and important spice market in Yogyakarta. – 1990

A large quantity of ginger (Zingiber officinale) is poured out of a jute sack onto the ground. The ginger roots (rhizomes) are cleaned, often peeled, and dried in the sun. Ginger is used as an aromatic cooking spice, as a base for ginger tea, or is valued in traditional medicine for its medicinal properties. – Kerala – Calicut – 1990

Color plate of the clove (Caryophyllus (Syzygium) aromaticus L.). The illustration originally appeared in an issue of “Curtis’s Botanical Magazine” from 1827. This historical botanical illustration depicts a flowering branch of the clove tree, whose unopened, dried flower buds are used as cloves in cooking. Plaque: Geneva Conservatory and Botanical Garden – 1990

These are dried cloves, which are used as an aromatic spice in both sweet and savory dishes. They are rich in essential oils and have a slightly spicy, peppery, and intense flavor. In traditional medicine, they are believed to have anti-inflammatory and pain-relieving properties. - 1990

Just before flowering, the buds—or cloves—are ready to be harvested. A five-year-old clove tree is about six to eight meters tall and robust enough for its first “harvest.” After picking the flower buds, the tree is allowed a rest period of eighteen to twenty-four months before the next harvest. This cycle can be maintained until the tree dies or is felled. – 1990

Dried cloves rightly bear their French name, “Clou de girofle” (clove bud). The bud, which is three to four millimeters in diameter and a beautiful dark brown, consists of tightly packed petals; the stem, formed from the calyx, is ten to twelve millimeters long. During the drying process, cloves lose nearly half their weight. The yield from a single tree is approximately ten kilograms, rarely more. – 1990

A large quantity of freshly harvested cloves (Syzygium aromaticum) spread out to dry. The cloves have their characteristic nail-like structure, with a stem and a bud-like head. The mixture of reddish-brown and still light green to yellowish buds indicates that they are in the transition phase following harvest. Traditionally, cloves are dried in the sun after harvest until they take on their familiar, uniform dark brown color and become hard. – 1990

Illustration of cardamom (Elettaria cardamomum) showing the leaves, the rootstock with its rhizomes, and the flowering stem with flowers, fruits, and seeds. Cardamom belongs to the ginger family, but its effects are less intense than those of ginger itself; furthermore, it is the seeds, not the root tubers, that are used. Cardamom is a staple in every curry blend, but it is also a key ingredient in gingerbread, along with cinnamon, cloves, coriander, and anise. The Chinese regard cardamom as an effective remedy for digestive complaints of all kinds. Plaque: Geneva Conservatory and Botanical Garden – 1990

Cardamom fields cover the mountains of the same name, which stretch inland for over 300 kilometers along the Malabar Coast in the Indian state of Kerala. Like most spices, cardamom requires a very hot and humid climate. It grows best in humus-rich soil in the shade of large evergreen trees. It prefers marshy locations and even proximity to a watercourse. The underground rootstock is a tuberous rhizome with fleshy roots from which reed-like above-ground stems grow. Each of these produces lance-shaped, 30-centimeter-long sheathing leaves. This term refers to leaves that partially envelop the stem on which they grow. Other, shorter stems bear small flowers at their base. These are greenish-white or purplish-violet and grow near the ground in two or three clusters, varying in length between 20 and 50 centimeters. When ripe, these flowers form egg-shaped fruits or capsules. - 1990

Freshly harvested green cardamom pods (Elettaria cardamomum) being sorted before the drying process. Cardamom belongs to the ginger family and is considered one of the most expensive spices in the world, after saffron and vanilla. When fresh, the spindle-shaped pods are plump, a vibrant green, and still have the small brown stems by which they hung from the plant’s inflorescence. It is only through the subsequent drying process that they acquire their characteristic, slightly wrinkled texture, familiar from the spice rack. – 1990

Cardamom is considered the third most expensive spice in the world, after saffron and vanilla. It is prized for its complex, aromatic flavour and is used in a variety of ways. Cardamom is an essential ingredient in curries, teas (such as masala chai), desserts and baked goods worldwide. In traditional medicine, it is valued for its digestive and anti-inflammatory properties. – Kerala – Calicut – 1990

The photo shows a large quantity of green cardamom (whole pods). Cardamom belongs to the ginger family and is one of the finest spices in the world. These dried fruits are known for their sweet and spicy aroma. It is one of the most expensive spices in the world, as the capsules are harvested primarily by hand. Cardamom is widely used in curries, Middle Eastern dishes, baked goods, or to enhance the flavor of coffee and tea. – 1990

Color chart of turmeric (Curcuma longa L.). The plant, which may have originated in India, is a close relative of ginger. Today, turmeric is cultivated and found growing wild from the Indian subcontinent (the Malabar Coast, Madras, Bengal) throughout Southeast Asia to Oceania, as well as in Madagascar, the Antilles, and Brazil. Plaque: Geneva Conservatory and Botanical Garden – 1990

When the leaves begin to wilt, turmeric is harvested by digging up the root tubers. Two varieties of turmeric, or yellow root, are available on the market: the round variety, which comes from the thick main tuber, and the elongated variety, which comes from the branches of this rhizome. — 1990

These tubers are fresh turmeric roots (rhizomes of the Curcuma longa plant). They resemble ginger roots in appearance, but are usually slightly narrower, more finger-like in shape, and have a characteristic ring-shaped pattern on their brownish skin. Beneath the skin lies an intensely orange-yellow flesh that stains strongly. When freshly grated or finely chopped, they impart an earthy, slightly bitter flavor to Asian curries, soups, and rice dishes. They are the main ingredient in the trendy drink “golden milk” or freshly brewed turmeric tea. – 1990

Turmeric at the most famous and important spice market in Yogyakarta. – 1990

Turmeric (Curcuma longa), also known as yellow root, is a medicinal and spice plant native to South Asia that is valued for its intense yellow colour and anti-inflammatory properties. The most important active ingredient is the polyphenol curcumin. – Sulawesi – 1990

Packaged turmeric roots for sale at the market in the village of Bontosunggu on Sulawesi. The pigment curcumin, or turmeric yellow, found in the tubers is a key ingredient in curry powder, which is actually a blend of various flavorings rather than a single spice. Other ingredients include ground peppercorns (Indian pepper), cardamom, coriander, and various other aromatic substances. The proportions of the individual spices vary from region to region; furthermore, different curry blends are used depending on the dish. In India, turmeric yellow is also used to dye textiles. And various Polynesian tribes, for example on the Marquesas Islands and in Wallis, use it to dye their hair. – 1990

Color illustration of the true nutmeg (Myristica fragrans H.) from a German work of the last century. The illustration shows a flowering branch alongside the various stages of development and details of the fruit. The pinnate, alternate leaves are evergreen, up to fifteen centimeters long, glossy green on top, and pale green with a silvery sheen on the underside. Plaque: Geneva Conservatory and Botanical Garden – 1990

The botanical illustration shows the nutmeg (Myristica fragrans). The leaves are dark green, leathery, elliptical in shape and taper to a point. The small, pale yellow or cream-coloured flowers grow in the leaf axils. The pear-shaped fruits split open when ripe, exposing the seed. A bright red, net-like tissue (mace) surrounds the dark seed. The hard, dark kernel contains the actual nutmeg with its characteristic marbled structure inside. Plate: Geneva Conservatory and Botanical Garden – 1990

This historical botanical illustration from *The Botanical Magazine* (1827) by William Jackson Hooker depicts a ripe, split fruit of the nutmeg tree (Myristica fragrans). The thick, bright orange outer husk surrounds the seed. When the fruit is ripe, it splits open of its own accord. The two important spices obtained from a single fruit are: Mace (mace flower): The bright red, net-like tissue (aril) visible inside the opened shell. It envelops the actual nut. When dried, it is used as a spice in its own right. The nutmeg: The dark brown seed at the centre of the whole fruit. In the illustration, it shimmers darkly beneath the red coat of the mace. Plate: Geneva Conservatory and Botanical Garden – 1990

Nutmegs (Myristica fragrans) are the dried, hard seeds of the nutmeg tree’s fruit. They are primarily used as a spice in dishes such as mashed potatoes, spinach, and Christmas cookies. The nuts should be freshly grated to release their full flavor. Consuming large quantities (more than one whole nut) can be harmful to health or even toxic. – 1990

Freshly opened nutmeg fruits. The flesh of these apricot-like fruits surrounds the large seed, the nutmeg. The striking red aril or seed coat is dried and sold as mace or mazis. – Banda Neira – Moluccas – 1990

Still life with a branch bearing fruit and open nutmeg fruits, as well as a collection basket and a bamboo picking drum called a gaigai. This is open on one side and equipped with two gripping teeth. The fruit is stripped off and falls into the cone-shaped collection drum. On Banda Besar, as on the other Moluccan islands, the harvest takes place twice a year, in June and October. - 1990

These seeds are freshly harvested nutmegs (Myristica fragrans) from the Indonesian Moluccas. Two main components are clearly visible: Mace (Macis): This is the bright red, net-like tissue (seed coat) that surrounds the nut. It is dried and used as a spice in its own right. Nutmeg: The dark, hard kernel inside, which is grated after drying. – 1990

Mazis laid out to dry in the sun give off a distinctive scent. When soaked in water, the strands swell up again immediately. From this soaked mazis, an essential oil with a pungent, spicy, and rather bitter scent is extracted, which is used in pharmaceuticals. – 1990

Chalked nutmegs are nuts that have been dipped in slaked lime after harvesting. This gives them a characteristic thin white layer on the surface or in the grooves. There are two main reasons for this traditional method: The lime effectively protects the dried seeds from insect infestation and mold during storage and long-distance transport. Chalking prevents the seeds from germinating, which is important for global export. – 1990

Color chart of the spice or true vanilla (Vanilla planifolia). This orchid species, native to the tropics of the New World, is now cultivated around the equator and regarded by some as a flavoring agent and by others as a true spice. It was already used in pre-Columbian times by the indigenous peoples of Central America to flavor tobacco and cocoa. The Spanish conquistadors brought the vanilla plant to Europe at the end of the 15th century; later, attempts were made to cultivate the plant in various tropical colonies, which succeeded only when the problem of the lack of natural pollinators—especially hummingbirds—was overcome through self-pollination. Plaque: Geneva Conservatory and Botanical Garden – 199

The picture shows two different spices, each tied into a bundle. The first bundle consists of vanilla beans. They are dark brown to black, elastic, and have a slightly glossy surface. The second bundle consists of cinnamon sticks. They are made from the dried bark of cinnamon trees, are light brown in color, and have a woody, rolled texture. – 1990

As a vine-like orchid, the vanilla plant relies on a supporting tree. It anchors itself to the trunk with tendrils that grow from its shoots and can grow up to ten meters tall. The leaves are oblong to egg-shaped, thick and fleshy, and a rich green. On plantations, the climbing plants are allowed to grow up light-tolerant tree species and are pruned back to a certain height every year. They can live up to fifty years. – 1990

A bundle of dried vanilla beans, with a fresh, not yet fully matured fruit placed on top for comparison. The cylindrical pods, which can grow up to twenty-five centimeters long, change color from yellow to brown as they ripen. After harvesting, the pods are left to ferment by alternating exposure to sunlight with storage in sealed containers. During this process, they turn blackish, and the glycoside in the pod’s skin is broken down into fructose and vanillin. – 1990

Color chart featuring a twig and dried bark of the cinnamon tree (Cinnamomum sp.). The finest cinnamon comes from the Ceylon cinnamon tree, which is now found from southern India through Southeast Asia and Indonesia to China. It has also been introduced to the Seychelles, Mauritius, Madagascar, the Antilles, Guyana, and Brazil. However, it is most common in Sri Lanka, where four subspecies are distinguished. The plantations are located primarily in the southwest of the island, from the coast up to an altitude of 1,000 meters. Plaque: Geneva Conservatory and Botanical Garden – 1990

This botanical illustration depicts the Ceylon cinnamon tree (Cinnamomum verum, synonym Cinnamomum zeylanicum). It shows a branch with the characteristic trifoliate leaves and white inflorescences. Also included are botanical cross-sections of flowers, stamens and ovaries for identification purposes. Plate: Geneva Conservatory and Botanical Garden – 1990

Cinnamon sticks are made from the dried bark of cinnamon trees. The type of cinnamon can be identified by its visual structure. If the sticks consist of thin, delicate layers of bark, they are Ceylon cinnamon (also called “true cinnamon”), which differs significantly from the thicker, usually single-rolled bark of Cassia cinnamon. Ceylon cinnamon comes primarily from Sri Lanka. Cassia cinnamon usually comes from China or Indonesia. Ceylon has a refined, sweet, and subtle flavor. Cassia has a sharper and more intense aroma. Ceylon cinnamon contains only very small traces of the compound coumarin. Cassia cinnamon, on the other hand, contains significantly higher amounts, which is why Ceylon cinnamon is considered safer for regular consumption in larger quantities. – 1990

A flowering cinnamon tree in Sri Lanka. Various environmental factors contribute to the growth of this spice tree here. First, the high average temperature of twenty-five to thirty degrees; second, annual rainfall of at least two thousand millimeters; and finally, sandy soils with a high quartz content. The plantations, which require no special care, are established as dense nurseries. Farmers limit their efforts to occasional hoeing, weeding, and fertilizing with natural materials such as manure or copra residues. However, the tree must be pruned regularly so that it does not grow too tall. The cinnamon tree then develops numerous root suckers and takes on a shrub-like form. The cinnamon tree is propagated by seed, cuttings, and layering. – 1990

A worker in Sri Lanka produces cinnamon sticks using traditional methods. This process involves peeling the bark from the branches of the cinnamon tree (Cinnamomum verum). Cinnamon is the inner bark of this tree. First, the outer, rough bark is scraped off the branch. The remaining bark is rubbed with a brass rod to separate it from the wood. Then, a special knife is used to peel off the thin inner bark layer in long strips. These pieces of bark are intertwined and dried, causing them to roll up into the familiar cinnamon sticks. Sri Lanka is known worldwide for its high-quality Ceylon cinnamon, also known as ‘true cinnamon’. Production is traditionally often in the hands of the Salagama caste. - 1990

Cinnamon sticks stacked closely together, viewed from above. The characteristic spiral-shaped layers of the tree bark are clearly visible. Ceylon cinnamon (“true cinnamon”) consists of several extremely thin layers of bark that are tightly rolled together like a cigar. In Cassia cinnamon (Chinese cinnamon), the individual pieces of bark are usually thick and coarse and curl inward from both sides (often like a “U” or a double spiral). – 1990

A large bundle of cinnamon sticks, which are obtained from the dried inner bark of cinnamon trees. Cinnamon is used worldwide as a spice in cooking, baking and beverages. The picture shows the traditional harvesting and storage in bundles, as is customary in growing regions in Sri Lanka. – 1990

This map shows the historic spice trade routes that linked Asia, Africa and Europe for centuries. The red lines mark both the maritime routes across the Indian Ocean and the Atlantic, and the overland caravan routes (often linked to the Incense Road and the Silk Road). They illustrate how precious commodities such as spices, resins (e.g. myrrh and frankincense) and essential oils were transported from their places of production in the Middle East, India and the islands of South-East Asia to Europe.

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